TEACHERS'  MANUAL 


BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 
CITYOF  NEW  YORK 


GRAMMAR  GRADES 


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University  of  California 


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STATE  HORMAl  SCHOOL. 

Lm  Angeles,  C»t 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,        /^^^ 

Los  Anfetcs,  Cal. 

A    MANUAL 


Discipline  and  Instruction 


USE  OF  THE  TEACHERS 


GRAMMAR    SCHOOLS 


UNDEK   THE   CHARGE   OF  THE 


Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  New  York 


PUBLISHED  BY 

J.     S.     BABCOCK 
55  Cedar  Street,  N.  Y. 


^■3  2. 


Copyright,  1884 

By  LAWRENCE  D.  KIERNAN 

Clerk  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  New  I  'ork 


TROWS 
TING  AND  BOOKBINDING  COMPANV. 
NEW  YORK. 


LB 
TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 


The  following  brief  extracts  from  the  Records  of  the 
Board  of  Education  show  the  circumstances  and  authority 
■under  which  this  Manual  of  Instruction  was  prepared : 

Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education  for  1882,  page  693 : 
"  Resolved,  That  the  Teachers'  Manual  be  referred  to  the  Committee  on 
Course  of  Study  and  School  Books,  for  such  revision  as  may  be  neces- 
sary, and  report  thereon  to  this  Board." 

Journal  op  the  Board  of  Education  for  1882,  pages  790  and  845: 
"  First,  That  the  Teachers'  Manual  be  revised,  and  its  provisions  be 
made  to  conform  to  the  present  Course  of  Study.  That  the  methods 
of  instruction  recommended  in  said  Manual  shall  be  suggestive  only, 
but  that  in  respect  to  other  matter,  when  so  stated  therein,  said  Manual 
shall  have  the  same  force  and  effect  as  a  by-law  of  the  Board." 

By  the  authority  of  the  Board  and  the  Committee  on 
Coui-se  of  Study  and  School  Books,  John  Jasper,  City 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  and  his  Assistants,  have  pre- 
pared the  Manual  herewith  presented. 

William  Wood,  ") 

Gilbert  H.  Crawford,   |  Committee  on  Course 

Ferdinand  Traud,           V  of  Study  and  School 

J.  Edward  Simmons,        |  Books. 
Edward  Patterson,       J 

STEPHEN  A.  WALKER, 
Law.  D.  Kiernan,  President. 

Clerk. 


TEACHERS'  MANUAL 

FOR   THE 

GRAMMAR    SCHOOLS 

OF 

NE^\^  YORK  CITY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Object  of  this  Manual. — The  object  of  this  manual 
is  to  furnish  teachers  with  tlie  Course  of  Instruction  pre- 
scribed for  the  Grammar  Schools,  and  with  instructions 
and  suggestions  to  aid  in  cari-jing  out  this  course  in  all  its 
requirements ;  also,  with  the  by-laws,  rules,  and  regulations 
which  relate  to  the  duties  of  teachers. 

1!^  The  Course  of  Studies  and  the  by-laws  and  regula- 
tions contained  herein  are  valid  requirements  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  teachers  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties.  As  to 
the  suggestions  in  relation  to  methods  of  teaching  given 
herewith,  although  they  embody  the  results  of  the  long 
and  wide  experience  of  many  successful  teachers,  and  al- 
though their  proper  use  has  uniformly  led  to  desired  ends 
in  instruction,  the  teacher  will  be  at  liberty  to  receive  and 
to  use  them  as  the  counsel  of  a  trusted  friend,  and  to  make 
the  modifications  necessary  to  meet  the  particular  condi- 


0  INTRODUCTION. 

tions  of  the  pupils  under  instruction  ;  but  she  will  be  held 
responsible  for  the  use  of  such  methods  as  will  lead  pupils 
to  the  attainment  of  proper  results  in  their  education.  The 
true  education  of  children  is  not  dependent  upon  the  use 
of  any  particular  method.  Methods  of  education  are  val- 
uable only  when  they  harmonize  with  the  conditions  under 
which  the  mind  attains  knowledge. 

S!2^  Teachers  are  counselled  to  study  carefully  the  sug- 
gestions given  in  relation  to  each  subject  of  instruction, 
and  to  consider  the  principles  that  underlie  and  direct  the 
methods,  in  order  wisely  to  modify  these  methods  when 
circumstances  render  it  desirable  to  do  so.  In  education 
jprinciples  are  like  fixed  laws :  true  methods  of  teaching 
are  only  ivays  of  obeying  and  carrying  otd  those  laics. 

Duties  of  the  Teachek. — IS^o  task  can  be  more  respon- 
sible or  require  the  exercise  of  greater  care  than  that  of 
educating  the  young.  To  perform  it  properly,  special 
preparation  and  study  are  indispensably  necessary,  not 
only  in  relation  to  the  branches  of  knowledge  which  may 
have  been  selected  as  a  basis  for  the  instruction,  but  in 
regard  to  the  proper  methods  and  appliances  to  be  em- 
ployed, in  order  to  render  the  instruction  truly  effective. 
These  methods  must  be  determined  by  a  consideration  of 
the  faculties  to  be  trained  and  educated,  as  well  as  the 
nature  of  the  subject  taught. 

To  a  great  extent,  experience  must  be  our  guide  in 
enabling  us  to  judge  of  the  character  of  the  minds  to  be 
educated,  as  well  as  to  determine  the  means  to  be  em- 
ployed for  cai-rying  on  the  work. 

The  teacher's  task  is  one  of  great  magnitude,  responsi- 
bility, and  labor.  Great  issues  depend  upon  its  right  per- 
formance. The  future  welfare  of  the  community  depends 
upon  her  efforts.     Neglect  on  her  part — nay,  conscious  in- 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

efficiency — is  a  crime.  The  impressions  whicli  are  made 
by  her  are  ineffaceable.  Hence  it  is  of  supreme  impor- 
tance that  her  work  receive  all  the  guidance  that  careful 
study  and  mature  experience  can  afford. 

The  natural  education  of  each  child  is  begun  before  he 
enters  school,  by  means  of  his  personal  experience  with 
the  objects  and  phenomena  that  surround  him.  Knowl- 
edge is  the  result  of  experience.  Every  teacher  should 
aim  to  continue  the  natural  processes  of  education  by  ex- 
tending the  personal  experience  of  the  pupils,  so  that  the 
range  of  objects  and  phenomena  observed  by  them  shall 
be  daily  increased.  To  produce  this  result  the  teacher 
must  select  suitable  materials  for  a  proper  exercise  of  the 
child's  senses ;  then  stimulate  the  pupil's  mind  to  work 
upon  them. 

It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  adjust  the  conditions  between 
the  child's  mind  and  the  objects,  so  that  the  natural  exer- 
cise of  the  senses  shall  develop  mental  power  and  pro- 
duce intellectual  growth.  The  teachers  work  should  cause 
the  child  to  notice  more  and  more  carefully  his  personal 
experiences  with  surrounding  objects,  and  thereby  lead  to 
the  formation  of  habits  of  observation.  It  is  the  teacher's 
duty  to  arrange  the  materials  to  which  the  pupils  should 
give  special  attention,  so  as  to  guide  their  observations  in 
a  manner  that  will  lead  to  a  proper  association  of  their 
experiences. 

Knowledge  consists  in  ideas  and  facts  gained  and  prop- 
erly classitied  by  the  learner.  Words  memorized  and  re- 
cited about  an  object,  even  though  their  arrangement  be 
faultless,  do  not  by  themselves  constitute  knowledge.  The 
child  cannot  be  a  real  learner  while  only  a  passive  recip- 
ient of  words.  Real  education  comes  from  what  the  child 
does.     To  effect  mental  development,  there  must  be  activ- 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

itj  of  the  mind  in  connection  with  the  object  just  as  truly 
as  there  must  be  activity  of  the  body  to  promote  physical 
development.  The  teacher  should  act  in  accordance  with 
these  facts  in  the  application  of  all  methods  of  instruction. 

In  no  other  period  of  education  does  the  importance  of 
a  proper  attention  to  the  laws  of  mental  development  rest 
so  heavily  npon  the  teacher  as  it  does  during  the  first 
three  years  of  the  child's  school  life.  During  this  period, 
especially,  should  instruction  commence  with  perceptions 
— perceptions  of  form,  color,  sounds,  number,  size,  quali- 
ties ;  of  right  and  wrong  actions,  obedience,  etc.  ;  and  the 
appropriate  words  and  language  should  be  taught  to  enable 
the  child  to  express  the  ideas  obtained  l)y  means  of  these 
different  perceptions. 

Ideas  are  obtained  in  different  ways.  Some  can  be 
gained  only  through  the  sense  of  sight,  as  color ;  some 
only  through  the  sense  of  touch,  as  rough,  smooth,  soft, 
hard,  hot,  cold  '  some  only  through  the  sense  of  smell,  as 
odo7'S  /  some  only  through  the  sense  of  taste,  as  sweet,  sour, 
hitter,  pungent,  astringent ;  some  only  through  the  sense 
of  hearing,  as  spoken  words,  music.  Of  some  objects  ideas 
may  be  gained  through  several  of  the  senses,  as  the  shape 
of  an  orange  by  the  sense  of  sight  and  of  touch  ;  its  color 
by  sight ;  its  odor  by  smell ;  and  other  properties  by  taste. 
The  ease  and  accuracy  with  which  ideas  ma}^  be  obtained 
in  these  different  ways  depend  upon  the  degree  of  devel- 
opment which  these  several  senses  have  attained.  The 
senses  are  the  gateways  through  which  the  mind  holds 
intercourse  with  the  world  around  it ;  and  if  these  be  but 
partly  opened,  or  if  freedom  of  communication  be  ob- 
structed by  neglecting  the  use  of  the  proper  means  for 
such  intercourse,  the  ideas  obtained  must  be  correspond- 
ingly dwarfed  and  imperfect. 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  tlie  proper  exercise  of  any 
power,  whether  physical  or  mental,  increases  that  power. 
Exercise  of  the  several  senses  is  therefore  the  true  means 
by  which  the  power  of  gaining  ideas  may  be  strengthened, 
and  the  ability  to  acquire  knowledge  increased. 

It  is  also  a  well-known  fact  to  all  observing  teachers 
that  a  large  proportion  of  young  children,  when  they  first 
enter  school,  have  not  learned  to  use  their  senses  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  enable  them  to  gain  accurate  ideas.  It  there- 
fore becomes  a  matter  of  great  importance  that  teachers 
of  young  children  should  give  special  attention  to  provid- 
ing suitable  exercises  for  this  purpose. 
1* 


GOVERiNMENT  AND  DISCIPLINE. 


INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  ALL  THE  GRADES. 

Tetje  Objects  of  Discipline. — The  training  of  pnpils 
so  that  they  &hal\  Jbrm  right  habits  and  leai'n  self-control, 
is  the  true  object  of  discipline.  In  all  the  rales  and 
methods  of  discipline  employed,  this  purpose  should  be 
kept  steadily  in  view.  Discipline,  in  its  relation  to  order, 
exists  for  the  sake  of  the  pupils  and  the  school.  It  pre- 
pares the  way  for  the  work  of  instruction,  and  makes  it 
eflFective.  Obedience  is  the  first  condition  in  discipline. 
It  includes  conformity  to  requirements  as  to  time,  place, 
and  manner,  such  as  punctuality,  regularity,  orderly  habits, 
and  so  forth. 

"  Like  Begets  Like." — "  As  is  the  teacher,  so  will  be 
the  school."  It  is,  therefore,  requisite  that  teachers  should 
possess  fixed  habits  of  neatness,  cleanliness,  and  order ; 
gentleness  of  manner,  a  watchful  self-control,  and  a  cheer- 
ful spirit.  In  speaking  let  pleasant  tones  of  voice  prevail ; 
then  the  words  of  reproof  will  be  more  impressive  and 
effectual. 

Teachers  should  never  forget  that  their  pupils  are  con- 
stantly and  closely  watching  their  conduct,  and  are  prone 
to  imitate  whatever  they  observe.  Scholars  should,  there- 
fore, see  and  hear  nothing  that  they  may  not  safely  imi- 
tate. There  is  an  "  unconscious  tuition,"  the  silent  influ- 
ence of  which  produces  the  most  permanent  effects. 

Sympathy  fok  Childken. — Teachers  should  seek  to  ob- 


12  GOVERNMENT    AND    DISCIPLINE. 

tain  the  sympathetic  regard  of  the  children  by  giving  a 
due  attention  to  their  wants  and  requests.  These  should 
be  fulfilled  as  far  as  it  is  proper  and  reasonable.  Children 
are  quick  to  perceive  and  to  resent  injury  or  injustice. 
The  child  who  asks  for  the  privilege  of  a  drink  of  water, 
for  instance,  may  be  suffering  acutely  ;  and,  if  not  ac- 
corded relief  when  this  seems  to  be  perfectly  practicable 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  may  feel  a  sense  of  outrage 
which,  for  a  time,  if  not  permanently,  would  impair  its 
respect  and  regard  for  the  teacher.  The  cultivation  of  a 
due  feeling  of  sympathy  for  the  children  will  wholly  pre- 
vent this.  The  possession  of  this  feeling  in  its  fulness  is 
the  best  foundation  of  success  in  both  discipline  and  in- 
struction. Kindness  is  the  practical  basis  of  sympathy. 
It  seeks  the  good  of  the  pupil  and  endeavors  to  remove  all 
imperfections  of  the  individual  without  injury  to  him.  Its 
influence  for  good  is  exceedingly  strong,  and  its  power 
with  children  nearly  irresistible. 

Encourage  Pupils.  —  Encouragement  inspires  confi- 
dence. Children,  more  than  others,  need  encouragement. 
It  is  a  strong  incentive  to  effort.  Let  it  be  given  in  all 
cases  where  this  can  be  honestly  done.  To  a  want  of  this, 
in  the  discipline  of  classes,  are  to  be  ascribed  the  timidity 
and  reserve  often  manifested  among  pupils  by  a  hesitating 
manner  and  a  low  voice.  A  proper  degree  of  encourage- 
ment will  render  them  confident  and  spirited,  eager  to  tell 
what  they  know,  and  in  an  audible  tone  of  voice.  En- 
couragement has  a  peculiar  infiuence  in  promoting  mental 
and  moral  improvement.  Letting  a  boy  know  that  you 
believe  there  is  good  in  him  is  the  best  way  for  putting  it 
there. 

Develop  Right  Opinions. — Aim  to  govern  the  class  by 
a  development  of  public  opinion  among  the  pupils  in  favor 


GOVERNMENT    AND    DISCIPLINE.  13 

of  the  right  and  against  the  wrong,  and  thus  govern  indi- 
vidual members  through  the  class.  Give  proper  attention 
to  those  cases  of  disorder  by  single  pupils  which  cannot 
be  overcome  through  influence  upon  the  class.  Success  in 
discipline  does  not  lie  in  telling  individual  pupils  their 
faults  before  the  class.  Attempts  to  detect  and  correct 
each  individual  misdeed  in  detail  will  not  develop  the 
right  public  opinion  nor  lead  the  pupils  to  a  willing  com- 
pliance M'ith  the  wishes  of  the  teacher.  Judicious  com- 
mendation when  pupils  make  efforts  to  overcome  faults 
is  more  effective  toward  accomplishing  the  desired  results. 

Avoid  Scolding. — Harsh  tones  are  unnecessary  and 
improper.  Words  of  disapprobation  may  be  nttered  by  the 
teacher  in  a  tone  of  decision,  without  the  use  of  any  sever- 
ity that  would  imply  resentment,  anger,  or  antipathy  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher.  On  the  contrary,  the  language 
used  and  the  tones  of  the  voice  should  always  express  a 
feeling  of  symimthy  with  the  child.  This  is  the  way  to 
win  the  youthful  mind,  and  to  bend  the  will  through  the 
affections ;  a  different  course  will  antagonize  it  and  pre- 
vent all  real  submission,  securing  only  a  temporary  sem- 
blance of  obedience.  Nei^er  threaten.  Harsh  words, 
rough  means,  and  appeals  to  corporal  punishment,  when 
employed  to  secure  school  order  and  certain  results  of 
study,  break  down  the  sense  of  honor  and  destroy  in  the 
pupil  the  proper  respect  for  his  teacher. 

Attention  the  Basis  of  Good  Order. — Good  order 
does  not  require  pupils  to  occupy,  for  a  long  time,  a  fixed 
position  ;  nor  to  assume  a  constrained  posture  ;  nor  to  fix 
their  eyes  upon  a  given  point ;  nor  to  be  as  motionless  as 
statues.  All  this  is  unnatural,  and  much  of  it  positively 
injurious,  and  whatever  is  unnatural  is  not  good  order. 
The  postures  of  the  pupil  should  be  graceful,  easy,  and 


14  GOVERNMENT    AND    DISCIPLINE. 

uniform,  and  should  be  frequently  changed.  The  move- 
ments, Avhile  as  simultaneous  as  perfect  attention  would 
necessarily  produce,  should  also  be  easy  and  natural. 

1^^  Intelligent  attention,  j}7'omj>t  and  willing  obedi- 
ence, toith  quiet,  orderly  movennents,  a/re  the  chief  requisites 
of  good  order. 

Physical,  Education.  —  Xo  system  of  education  and 
school  management  is  complete  which  neglects  to  provide 
for  due  attention  to  physical  training.  Children  should 
be  taught  how  to  sit,  to  stand,  to  move,  to  walk  ;  to  ab- 
stain from  the  use  of  those  things,  and  to  avoid  the  doing 
of  those  acts  which  are  injurious  to  health.  Eegulations 
and  instructions  in  relation  to  this  matter  should  be  simple, 
and  due  attention  should  be  given  to  them  at  every  ap- 
propriate opportunity  during  the  daily  exercises  of  the 
school. 

Cleanliness  of  person  and  of  clothing ;  the  importance 
of  breathing  pure  air,  of  eating  proper  food,  of  caring 
properl}^  for  the  eyes,  the  teeth,  and  the  ears ;  and  the 
necessity  for  daily  phj-sical  exercise,  should  receive  special 
attention,  and  be  made  subjects  of  instruction  and  admoni- 
tion. 

In  the  matter  of  proper  postures,  movements,  etc.,  it  is 
quite  easy  to  enforce  all  necessary  regulations,  provided 
they  are  not  capriciously  applied.  Children  must  first  be 
taught  them,  and  then  never  permitted  to  violate  them 
without  admonition  or  correction. 

Due  attention  should  be  given  daily  to  calisthenics  and 
such  other  exercises  as  will  aid  the  physical  organs  to  per- 
form their  functions  properly,  and  thereby  to  prepare  the 
mind  for  elSicient  activity. 

Xeatness,  Regularity. — Neatness,  method,  and  regu- 
larity are  among  the  necessary  elements  of  popular  educa- 


GOVERNMENT    AND    DISCIPLINE.  15 

tion.  The  character  of  cliildren  is  greatly  affected  by 
their  surroundings.  These  should,  therefore,  be  neat  and 
orderly.  The  rooms  in  which  they  assemble  should  be 
clean,  the  desks  and  other  furniture,  as  far  as  possible, 
free  from  injury  or  defacement,  everything  giving  evidence 
of  constant  attention.  Children  thus  unconsciously  acquire 
habits  of  order,  neatness,  and  regularity,  which  have  an 
important  bearing  upon  their  usefulness  and  happiness  in 
after  life. 

To  impart  or  maintain  these  habits,  every  proper  means 
should  be  employed,  and  every  requisite  rule  should  be 
carefully  and  regularly  enforced. 

Moral  Education. — No  teacher  who  neglects  the  moral 
training  of  the  pupils  in  the  essential  elements  of  good 
character  does  the  whole  duty  of  the  instructor.  The 
main  object  in  moral  training,  as  in  physical  and  intel- 
lectual education,  is  to  give  a  right  direction  to  the  action 
of  those  powers  that  relate  to  this  department  of  our 
nature.  Such  training,  to  be  effective,  must  provide  suit- 
able means  for  the  exercise  of  the  moral  powers.  It  con- 
sists, largely,  in  leading  the  children  to  understand  their 
duties  to  themselves  and  their  duties  toward  others. 
Among  their  duties  to  themselves  are :  self-control  in  all 
matters  relating  to  conduct — of  the  temper,  the  appetite, 
and  the  desires ;  speaking  the  truth  ;  and  self -culture  in 
all  things  that  aid  in  forming  a  good  character.  Among 
their  duties  to  others  are  :  obedience  to  parents  and  teach- 
ers ;  kindness  to  brothers,  sisters,  and  playmates  ;  and  the 
practical  observance  of  the  Golden  Rule.  That  teacher 
who  kindly  respects  the  rights  of  the  pupils,  and  daily 
illustrates  the  great  virtue — kindness — in  the  management 
of  pupils,  and  in  personal  conduct  elsewhere,  will  ac- 
complish practical  results  in  moral  education  which  cannot 


16  GOVERNMENT    AND    DISCIPLINE. 

be  attained  by  rules  or  lectures.  A  spirit  of  true  kind- 
ness pervading  a  school  will  become  a  fountain  of  virtues. 

Children  do  not  comprehend  virtue  in  the  abstract ;  but 
they  soon  learn  to  understand  it  when  they  see  it  in  the 
actions  of  their  teachers  and  parents  and  of  others  around 
them.  Let  the  teacher  utilize  the  reading  and  other  les- 
sons, as  well  as  school  incidents,  in  leading  the  children  to 
admire  honesty,  truth-speaking,  unselfishness,  true  courage, 
and  all  right-doing,  and  thus  sift  in  and  mingle  the  moral 
with  the  mental,  as  I^ature  does  in  her  teaching. 

Lead  children  to  discuss  the  character  of  actions  de- 
scribed in  stories,  reading  lessons,  etc.,  and  thus  aim  to 
develop  in  them  the  ability  to  discriminate  justly  between 
the  right  and  the  wrong  in  their  own  conduct. 

Social  relations,  the  dependence  of  each  individual  upon 
his  neighbor,  the  necessity  of  labor,  the  benefits  of  society 
and  government,  should  be  illustrated  and  taught  by 
means  of  easy  and  familiar  lessons  suited  to  the  age  and 
capacity  of  the  children.  As  the  development  of  the 
moral  nature  is  of  greater  importance  to  the  welfare  of 
the  individual  and  the  community  than  any  other  part  of 
education,  no  opportunity  should  be  omitted  for  training 
children  in  such  habits  as  will  cause  them  to  grow  up 
truthful,  honest,  self-governing,  and  law-abiding  citizens. 

Modes  of  Punishivient. — Every  punishment  should  be 
adapted  to  the  offence.  As  a  general  principle,  if  pupils 
abuse  a  privilege,  punish  by  depriving  them  of  that 
privilege  for  a  while.  If  injury  be  done  to  that  which 
belongs  to  another,  require  a  satisfactory  reparation. 
School  loorh  should  never  he  given  as  a  punishment. 

Firmness,  vigilance,  and  uniformity  in  dealing  with 
children  are  of  the  first  importance.  The  teacher  should 
never  resort  to  violent  means,  such  as  pushing,  pulling,  or 


GOVERNMENT    AND    DISCIPLINE.  17 

shaking  the  cliildren,  in  order  to  obtain  their  attention. 
All  such  practices  constitute  a  kind  of  corporal  punish- 
ment which,  in  all  its  forms,  is  specially  prohibited  by  the 
Board. 

Modes  of  punishment  painful  to  the  corporeal  system, 
such  as  the  sustaining  of  wearisome  burdens,  unnatural 
and  long-continued  attitudes  of  restraint,  standing,  kneel- 
ing, etc.,  are  wrongful  and  injurious.  Equally  so  is  the 
confining  of  delinquents  by  tying  them  or  by  shutting 
them  in  closets.  These  are  all  a  resort  to  mere  physical 
force,  instead  of  moral  incentives,  and  involve  no  appeal 
to  a  sense  of  honor  or  duty  in  the  child.  They  do  not 
properly  assert  the  authority  of  the  teacher,  nor  do  they 
really  produce  obedience  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 

In  directing  the  various  movements  required  of  the 
pupils,  care  should  be  taken  never  to  touch  them.  The 
teacher  should  take  such  a  position  before  the  class  as  will 
command  the  eye  of  eveiy  pupil,  and  thence  direct  by  the 
voice,  or  by  a  signal.  Pupils  must  be  habituated  to  the 
impression  that  the  teacher  will  give  the  commands  but 
once^  and  that  they  must  be  obeyed  instantly. 

Puhlic  exjwsures  and  hadges  of  disgrace  belong  to  a 
class  of  punishments  which,  if  ever  resorted  to,  should  be 
employed  under  careful  limitations,  and  with  great  circum- 
spection and  prudence ;  for  it  requires  a  skilful,  discreet, 
and  conscientious  teacher  to  use  them  safely  and  with 
advantage.  In  the  discipline  of  girls  such  methods  should 
be  avoided  altogether,  as  destructive  of  that  nice  sense  of 
shame  and  that  delicate  sensibility  to  reputation  which 
should  be  carefully  fostered  in  the  female  character. 
Avoid  the  use  of  ridicule ;  it  is  a  dangerous  remedy,  and 
tends  to  the  loss  of  self-respect  in  the  pupil. 

SuM^iAEY  OF  Impoktant  FoiNTs. — The  following  is  a 


18  GOVEENMENT    AND    DISCIPLUSTE. 

brief  summary  of  the  practically  important  points  in  moral 
education,  and  in  the  training  in  morals  and  manners: 

That  intellectual  training,  however  excellent,  is  not 
enough : 

That  public  schools  are  instituted  to  make  not  only 
intelligent  but  good  citizens  : 

That  morals  and  manners  are  best  taught  incidentally, 
not  formally  ;  by  personal  example  and  anecdote,  not  by 
mere  lecture : 

That  "  unconscious  tuition  "  by  the  force  of  the  teach- 
er's example,  is  a  most  powerful  influence  for  good  or  for 
evil  ;  and  that  this  includes  habits  of  personal  cleanliness, 
tidiness,  the  avoidance  of  lounging  in  sitting  or  standing, 
etc. ;  punctuality,  promptness,  earnestness  in  the  right, 
respect  for  the  rights  and  feelings  of  pupils  and  others ; 
the  use  of  kind  tones,  and  a  kind  manner;  private  ad- 
monition of  the  erring ;  the  avoidance  of  all  coarse  and 
low  expressions  and  of  every  form  of  petty  tyranny. 

Among  the  many  points  upon  which  opportunity  for 
incidental  instruction  should  be  sought,  are  the  following : 

Respect  for  parents  and  teachers,  and  for  the  aged ;  kind- 
ness to  the  infii-m  ;  the  avoidance  of  crnelty  ;  abhorrence  of 
brutality,  including  pugilism ;  courtesy  and  politeness;  true, 
and  false  courage  ;  bravery  and  foolhardiness ;  moral  cour- 
age and  decision  as  indispensable  to  a  noble  character ; 
truthfulness,  and  the  meanness  of  lying ;  the  degradation 
involved  in  habits  of  profanity,  indecency,  and  intemper- 
ance ;  the  avoidance  of  bad  books,  bad  papers,  and  bad 
companions  ;  the  indispensable  virtue  of  patriotism  ;  and, 
generally,  to  do  and  to  be  right  because  it  is  right,  and 
not  for  fear  of  punishment,  discovery,  or  disgrace. 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION 

PRESCKIBED   FOR 

GRAMMAR    SCHOOLS, 

WITH 

DIRECTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Outline  Course. 


1.  Language  Lessons. — Beading  ot  the  grade  of  a  Third  Reader: 
oral  lessons  on  the  qualities  and  uses  of  familiar  objects,  such  as  articles 
of  clothing,  food,  materials  for  building,  and  so  forth  :  compositions  upon 
subjects  connected  with  the  oral  lessons  of  the  grade  :  spelling,  meaning, 
and  use  of  words,  chiefly  from  the  lessons  of  the  reading  book,  and  from 
the  oral  lessons  of  the  grade  ;  also  selected  miscellaneous  words  in  gen- 
eral use,  at  least  150  in  number,  to  be  taught  chiefly  by  writing  them 
separately,  and  in  short  sentences  from  dictation. 

2.  AiiniUiKTic—Wiitfen  and  Mental. — Through  the  simple  rules  and 
Federal  money,  with  practical  examples.  Tables  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures to  be  taught,  with  simple  practical  applications. 

3.  Geography  (without  text- book). —The  World:  from  globes  and 
outline  maps. 

4.  Penmanship. —  Words  of  various  length,  presented  in  the  order  of 
their  difficulty.     Practice  in  capitals  continued. 

5.  Drawing.— Oil  paper,  illustrated  on  blackboard,  from  dictation 
and  from  chart. 

Draw  semicircles  on  vertical  and  horizontal  diameters  of  four  inches. 
Bi-symmetrical  arrangements  of  simple  and  compound  curves  on  verti- 
cal axis,  two  of  each.  Two  simple  historic  borders,  illustrating  horizon- 
tal repetition  of  a  unit.  Two  conventional  cordate  leaves ;  symmetrical 
arrangement  of  these  leaves  in  the  ecjuilateral  triangle  and  the  octagon. 


INSTRUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


LANGUAGE. 


READING. 

General  Suggestions  for  all  Grades. 

1.  The  number  of  reading  lessons  should  bear  a  reason- 
able relation  to  the  time  the  pupils  have  been  in  the 
grade.  Xo  selection,  other  than  the  best  English  poetry, 
should  be  so  long  dwelt  upon  and  so  frequently  repeated 
as  to  render  the  exercise  a  mere  recitation. 

2.  Should  a  large  number  of  consecutive  lessons  ia  the 
Reader  be  of  the  same  general  character,  a  part  should  be 
omitted,  so  as  to  give  variety  of  style  and  subject. 

3.  Where  two  or  more  classes  are  in  different  parts  of 
the  same  grade,  and  use  the  same  Reader,  care  should  be 
taken  to  have  a  corresponding  difference  in  their  reading 
lessons. 

4.  Distinctness  of  articulation  and  the  avoidance  of  all 
improper  clipping  of  terminations,  and  of  the  omission  or 
slurring  of  syllables,  should  receive  careful  and  constant 
attention. 

5.  New  and  difficult  words  should  be  carefully  pro- 
nounced and  explained  before  the  piece  or  paragraph  is 
read  by  the  pupils. 

6.  Where  diacritical  marks  are  used  in  the  Reading 
Book  the  pupils  should  be  taught  to  understand  and  apply 
them. 


LANGUAGE.  21 

7.  Lists  of  common  words  liable  to  be  mispronounced, 
such  as  length  and  strength,  should  be  made  bj  the  teacher, 
and  the  class  be  exercised  upon  them.  The  elementaiy 
sounds,  and  their  more  difficult  combinations  in  words  and 
phrases  which  require  great  mobilitj  of  the  vocal  organs 
(especially  Jinal  consonants),  should  receive  frequent  at- 
tention. Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  pupils  of 
foreign  birth  or  parentage,  so  as  to  insure  their  mastery  of 
the  principal  difficulties  of  English  pronunciation. 

8.  Pupils  should  read  only  such  selections  as  are  within 
their  ready  comprehension,  and  should  be  accustomed  to 
state,  in  their  own  language,  the  important  facts,  prin- 
ciples, and  moral  lessons  therein  taught.  Words,  phrases, 
or  allusions  should  be  briefly  explained  whenever  neces- 
sary for  the  proper  understanding  of  the  piece  read. 

9.  The  voice  and  manner  of  the  pupil  should  accord 
with  the  character  and  sentiment  of  the  selection.  All 
drawling,  sing-song  tones  should  be  prevented.  This  is 
easily  done  when  the  pupils  are  led  to  understand  and 
enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  piece. 

10.  At  least  once  a  week  it  is  expedient  to  require  all 
the  pupils,  except  the  one  reading,  to  close  their  books. 
In  this  way  the  class  will  be  better  able  to  criticise,  and 
the  criticism  will  be  more  just  and  valuable.  Besides, 
while  the  other  pupils  will  all  be  kept  on  the  alert  to 
listen,  the  pupil  reading  will  unavoidably  endeavor  to  pro- 
nounce correctly,  enunciate  distinctly,  and  emphasize  nat- 
urally. Additional  effect  will  be  given  to  these  exercises 
by  requiring  the  pupils  to  reproduce,  in  their  own  lan- 
guage, the  substance  of  what  has  been  read  to  them.  The 
principal  application  of  this  most  important  exercise  is  in 
the  use  of  supplementary  Readers. 

11.  As  silent  reading  constitutes  nearly  all  the  reading 


22  EIGHTH   GRADE. 

that  is  of  practical  use  and  value  to  us,  this  method  of 
reading  should  be  commenced  and  tested  in  school.  It  is, 
therefore,  desirable  that  exercises  in  which  the  class  read 
silently  should  be  given  with  proper  frequency.  The 
teacher  can  determine  the  results  of  the  pupils'  efforts  by 
appropriate  questioning  and  by  calling  upon  the  pupils  to 
tell  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  matter  thus  read. 

ORAL    LESSONS. 

General  Suggestions  fok  all  Grades. 

1.  The  leading  objects  in  this  branch  of  instruction  are, 
first,  to  cultivate  habits  of  observation  and  reflection,,  and 
second,  to  ^ive  facility  in  descrij)tion,  both  oral  and  writ- 
ten. Avoid  everj'thing  tending  to  convert  these  lessons 
into  recitations  of  set  forms  of  words,  however  these  forms 
may  have  been  obtained,  however  well  they  may  be  un- 
derstood by  the  pupils,  and  however  important  the  facts 
thus  stated. 

2.  In  the  selection  of  topics,  ^''familiar  objects,''''  and 
familiar  animals,  plants,  and  minerals  take  precedence  of 
all  others. 

It  is  neither  possible  nor  desirable  to  attempt  to  teach 
all,  or  even  the  greater  part  of  the  topics  that  might  be 
classified  with  the  requirements  of  any  grade.  ]^o  topic 
should  be  treated  exhaustively,  nor  shotdd  the  topics  se- 
lected be  so  FEW  or  so  frequently  reviewed  as  to  narrow 
down  or  suspend  the  discipline  of  the  observing  faculty. 
Too  many  reviews  of  a  topic  extinguish  the  pupil's  interest 
in  it,  and  are  worse  than  a  mere  waste  of  time ;  they  are 
positively  injurious.  The  selection  and  limitation  are  left 
to  the  good  sense  of  the  teacher. 

3.  The  objective  method  of  teaching  presents  two  dis- 


LANGUAGE.  23 

tinct  tliough  intimately  related  departments:  2)et'Geptwe 
teaching,  in  which  the  object,  as  an  acorn  or  an  egg,  is 
directly  presented  to  the  pupil's  senses  ;  and  conceptive 
teacliing,  in  which  impressions  previously  received  are  re- 
called, arranged,  and  utilized,  the  objects  themselves  not 
being  presented  to  the  senses  during  the  lesson.  An  oak, 
an  elephant,  or  a  thunder-storm,  would  fall  under  the 
latter  department. 

The  use  of  2>ictwres,  models,  or  other  sensible  represen- 
tations of  objects,  is  an  important  combination  and 
modification  of  the  two  principal  methods,  and  should  be 
often  employed. 

4.  Definitions  should  be  very  sparingly  introduced,  and 
never  in  the  first  stages  of  a  subject.  If  given  at  all,  they 
should  sum  up  knowledge  already  attained.  The  terms 
organic,  inorganic,  animal,  vegetable,  and  inineral,  are 
prominent  among  the  very  few  terms  requiring  definition. 
Such  definitions  should  be  prepared  for  by  a  process  at 
once  inductive  and  objective. 

5.  Ko  fact  which  the  teacher  can  readili/  lead  the  pupil 
to  discover  or  ascertain  for  himself  should  be  imparted 
by  the  teacher.  Important  facts  not  readily  derived  from 
the  pupil's  own  observation  must  of  course  be  supplied  by 
the  teacher.  Avoid  overloading  a  topic  with  details,  es- 
pecially those  of  technology.  As  far  as  the  character  of 
the  general  subject  of  the  grade  will  allow,  no  topic  should 
be  selected  in  which  the  number  oi  facts  to  he  told  bears  a 
large  proportion  to  those  which  the  pupil  may  be  led  to 

find  Old  for  himself. 

6.  The  language  used  hy  the  yu/pil  must  he  entirely  his 
oion,  excepting,  of  course,  the  few  indispensable  definitions. 
Even  these  definitions  should  form  no  part  of  any  continu- 
ous oral  or  written  statement. 


24  EIGHTH   GRADE. 

Note. — The  following  exemplifies  the  pupil's  only  use  of  definitions  : 
Teacher — You  said  coal  is  a  mineral.  What  do  you  mean  by  meneraL? 
You  said  it  is  a  fossil  substance.     \Yhat  do  you  mean  \>y  fosdl? 

7.  The^ocess  employed  will  present  two  distinct  stages : 
Firsts  the  analytical  or  preparatory,  in  which  the  teacher 
leads  the  pnpil  to  discover  or  to  rememher  the  properties 
or  peculiarities  of  an  object,  or  to  state  any  other  impor- 
tant facts  associated  with  it.  The  statements  by  the  pnpil 
will  be,  of  course,  in  his  own  words ;  and  the  additional 
statements  wdiich  the  teacher  himself  may  find  it  necessary 
to  make,  will  be  given  in  the  form  of  familiar  conversation. 
This  stage  gives  the  principal  discipline  of  the  powers  of 
observation  and  reflection. 

The  points  thus  considered  and  the  facts  thus  stated 
should  be  written  upon  the  black-board  in  the  briefest 
possible  synoptical  form,  each  one  after  it  has  been  con- 
sidered. While  some  such  synopsis  is  indisyensdble  to 
the  teacher  as  the  first  step  of  ]jrei)aration  for  giving  the 
lesson,  it  should  never  be  presented  to  \hQ  jpujpil  except  by 
the  gradual  process  above  indicated.  (See  Note-hooTxS^ 
paragraph  9.) 

8.  The  second  or  review  stooge  of  the  process  is  based 
upon  the  results  of  the  firsts  and  furnishes  the  principal 
discipline  of  the  powers  of  oral  and  written  statement. 
The  facts  already  considered  should  be  rearranged,  if 
necessary,  into  an  orderly  synopsis  upon  the  black-board, 
the  pupils  being  called  upon  to  assist  in  this  arrangement. 
This  furnishes  a  valuable  and  appropriate  discipline  of 
logical  faculty.  Pupils  should  then  be  required,  in  turn, 
to  state  what  they  can  recall  of  eacli  item  of  the  synopsis, 
then  of  each  group  of  items,  and,  lastly,  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject. Then  the  synopsis  may  be  wholly  or  in  part  removed 
or  hidden,  and  the  oral  process  of  review  repeated.     As  a 


LANGUAGE.  26 

final  stage,  and  before  dismissing  the  subject,  an  extempoi-e 
composition,  first  with  and  then  without  the  aid  of  the 
synopsis  upon  the  board,  sliould  be  written  upon  the  slate 
bv  each  pupih     (See  Coi7iposition.) 

9.  Note-looks. — No  one  can  give  an  "  oral  language 
lesson  "  properly  without  special  and  careful  jpreparation 
for  teaching  that  lesson.  To  attempt  to  do  otherwise  is 
to  fail.  A  synoptical  outline  or  syllabus  of  the  chief  points 
or  items  in  each  lesson  should  therefore  be  carefully  made 
ready  beforehand ;  and,  in  order  to  economize  the  time 
and  labor  of  the  teacher,  to  facilitate  the  few  necessary 
reviews,  and  to  furnish  a  proper  record  of  the  work  that 
has  been  done  or  attempted  during  the  term,  these  synop- 
ses sliould  be  recorded  in  a  note-bool;  together  M'itli  such 
additional  memoranda  of  authorities,  illustrations,  etc.,  as 
the  teacher  may  think  expedient.  But  it  is  particulai-ly 
enjoined  that  these  synopses  and  memoranda  shall,  as  far 
as  possible,  consist  of  words  and  brief  phrases  only,  merely 
full  enough  for  their  proper  use,  namely,  to  assist  the 
memory  of  the  teacher^  to  remind,  not  to  inform. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  proposed  lesson  is  written  out 
in  sentences  instead  'of  separate  words  and  phrases,  the 
teacher  can  scarcely  avoid  using  these  sentences,  word  for 
word,  over  and  over  again  in  the  exercises,  and  the  note- 
liooh  becomes  virtually  a  text-book,  and  a  verj-  crude  and 
imperfect  one.  In  such  case,  no  "  oral  language  lesson  "  is 
really  given;  the  oral  responses  of  the  pupils  are  merely 
7'ecitations  of  "  set  forms  of  words,"  and  the  final  exercise 
in  writing,  instead  of  being  a  comjwsition  l>ij  the  pupil,  is 
only  a  memorized  composition  which  has  been  written  and 
dictated  hy  the  teacher.  In  this  connection,  see  particularly 
t\\Q  first  paragraph  of  these  general  suggestions. 


28  EIGHTH    GKADE. 


OKAL  LESSONS  OF  THE  EIGHTH  GRADE. 

The  teacher  is  particularly  referred  to  the  preceding 
general  suggestions  and  to  the  directions  and  suggestions 
given  under  the  First  Primary  Grade,  It  is  important 
that  special  care  be  taken  that  the  class  in  the  Grammar 
School  Grade  does  not  go  over  the  topics  taught  before 
the  promotion  from  the  Primary,  To  this  end  the  record 
of  the  promotions  from  the  Primary  should  contain  a  list 
of  those  topics  that  were  used  in  the  Primary  "  object  les- 
sons." The  teacher  of  the  Eighth  Grade  should  have  a 
copy  of  this  list  in  her  note-book. 

List  of  Topics  suitable  for  Eighth  Grade. — This 
list  is  only  suggestive,'  no  one  vfill  have  time  to  take  up 
even  half  of  these  topics  :  make  selections.  With  the 
consent  of  the  Principal  the  teacher  may  substitute  any 
other  topic  or  topics  that  may  properly  be  included  under 
"  food,  clothing,  or  building  materials."  Avoid  all  inhiute 
details  of  technology.  Do  not  "review"  a  topic  so  often 
as  to  destroy  the  pupil's  interest.  Avoid  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  definitions:  correct  all  crudit^ies  of  language — do 
oiot  here  dwell  upon  them,  but  note  the  most  important, 
that  they  may  form  a  part  of  the  class  exercises  in  correc- 
tion of  errors  in  speech. 

Vegetable  Food — Bread  Grains. — Wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  maize, 
buckwheat,  rice.  All  of  them  seeds.  Relation  of  some  to  straw. 
Planted  every  year.  Trace  from  sowing  to  bread,  but  not  too  minutely. 
In  geographical  references  use  map  of  the  world.  Kinds  of  bread. 
Flour,  grits,  cracked  wheat ;  meal,  hominy,  samp,  green  corn,  corn 
starch  (other  starches) ;  misuses  of  grain  in  preparing  various  intoxicat- 
ing drinks. 

Common  Esculent  VegetaUes. — Select  chief  one.s  in  the  general  order 
of  their  annual  production.  Tell  where  city  children  may  see  them 
growing. 


LANGUAGE.  27 

Berries,  Melons,  and  Fruits. — Domestic  ones  first;  foreign — oranges, 
lemons,  bananas,  pineapples,  figs,  prunes,  raisins,  etc.  Wine,  cider, 
vinegar. 

Sugar. — Cane,  beet,  maple,  sorghum,  molasses ;  other  kinds  and 
sources  of  sugar,  in  honey,  milk,  fruits,  licorice  ;  glucose  or  corn  sugar. 

Beverages. — Tea,  coffee,  chocolate. 

Spices. — Black  pepper,  white  pepper,  red  pepper,  cloves,  nutmegs, 
mace,  allspice,  cinnamon,  ginger  ;  other  condiments — mustard,  horse- 
radish, salt,  vinegar,  catsup,  etc. 

Anim.yl,  Food. — Flesh  of  domestic  animals — beef,  mutton,  pork, 
poultry;  of  other  animals — game,  fish,  oysters,  etc.,  etc. 

Butter,  cheese,  lard,  milk. — Trades  and  occupations  connected  with 
food. 

Clothing — Vegetable  (h-igin. — Muslin,  calico,  linen.  India-rubber,  etc. 
Animal  Origin. — Woolens,  silks,  leather,  furs,  etc. 
How  fiirs  and  woolen  clothes  keep  us  warm.     Trades  and  occupations 
connected  with  clothing. 

BurLDiNG  Materials. — Common  building  stones — kinds  of  fine 
building  stones — mortar,  glass,  paints,  lumber — metals.  Trades  and  oc- 
cupations connected  with  building  and  building  materials. 

Miscellaneous. — Matches,  paper,  soap,  charcoal,  coal,  fire,  feathers, 
glue,  ivory,  plaster,  putty,  ink. 

Objects — easily  procurable. — Small  bunches  of  heads  of  wheat,  rye, 
barley,  ear  of  corn,  sprigs  of  rice,  small  bottles  or  boxes  containing  va- 
rious graiias,  hulled  and  unhuUed  rice,  bran,  unbolted  and  bolted  flour  ; 
piece  of  sugar-cane  or  of  corn-stalk,  little  boxes  of  sugar  in  three  or  four 
kinds  or  forms  ;  coffee,  raw  and  roasted  ;  tea,  green  and  black  ;  cocoa- 
nuts,  almonds,  peach-pits,  apples,  oranges,  etc. ,  each  in  its  season  ; 
wool,  cotLon,  hemp,  flax,  silk,  and  pieces  of  their  fabrics  ;  bits  of  leather, 
and  of  furs  of  various  kinds  ;  pieces  of  common  woods,  smoothed  to 
show  the  grain,  etc.,  etc.;  pictures  of  objects. 

These  and  many  others  are  frequently  found  in  schools.  The  skil- 
ful teacher  finds  them  indispensable. 

Reference  Books.— Sheldon's  Object  Lessons  ;  Sheldon's  Elemen- 
tary Instruction  ;  Parker's  Talks  on  Teaching ;  and,  especiall}',  articles 
in  Appleton's,  Chambers',  Johnson's,  and  other  cyclopajdias. 


28  EIGHTH   GRADE. 

COMPOSITIOK 

General  Suggestions  for  all  Grades. 

1.  Compositions  on  the  subjects  of  the  oral  lessons  are 
specially  prescribed  for  all  grades  excepting  the  first. 

2.  When  any  topic,  such  as  sugar,  nickel,  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  or  the  indestructibility  of  matter,  has  been 
as  fully  treated  in  the  conversational  lesson  and  review 
as  may  be  thought  expedient,  the  exercise  in  composition 
should  immediately  follow.  This  should  be  a  class  exer- 
cise on  slates.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  pupils  do 
not  make  them  so  long  as  to  prevent  proper  correction. 

3.  A  fevv^  pupils  should  be  called  upon  in  turn  to  read 
what  they  have  written,  and  should  be  led  by  judicious 
questioning  to  detect  any  important  errors  in  the  language 
■used,  or  in  the  statement  of  facts.  Under  proper  restric- 
tion, mutual  criticism  by  the  members  of  the  class  can  be 
made  a  very  profitable  exercise. 

4.  To  insure  a  proper  variety  of  thought  and  expression 
it  is  necessary  that  the  oral  lesson  which  forms  the  basis  of 
the  composition  should  be  so  selected  as  to  give  a  consider- 
able number  of  interesting  points  or  items.  If  injuriously 
frequent  repetition  and  review  are  avoided,  the  several 
pupils  will  recall  different  groups  of  items,  and  all  undue 
sameness  will  be  prevented.  "When  identical  phrases  or 
sentences  are  frequently  found  in  the  exercises  of  the  pu- 
pils, they  are  unquestionable  evidence  of  bad  methods  both 
in  the  oral  lessons  and  in  the  teaching  of  composition,  Ko 
definitions  should  be  found  in  a  composition.  Their  only 
proper  use  is  distinctly  stated  on  page  133. 

5.  Some  of  the  compositions  written  upon  the  slates 


SPELLING.  29 

should  be  copied  by  the  pupils  upon  paper.  This  should 
be  done  at  least  once  a  month  in  grades  eight  to  three,  and 
twice  a  month  in  the  higher  grades.  As  these  are  to  be 
separately  corrected  by  the  teacher  and  returned  to  the 
pupils  for  rewriting,  it  is  expected  that  the  teacher  will  so 
adjust  the  length  of  the  compositions  that  their  correction 
will  make  no  excessive  demand  upon  his  time.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  should  not  be  so  brief  as  to  fail  to  fur- 
nish the  pupils  with  sufficient  exercise. 

6.  The  pupil  should  write  his  name  and  the  date  upon 
each  composition.  All  those  of  the  same  date  should  be 
fastened  together,  so  that  the  sequence  of  packets  may 
show  the  frequency  of  the  lessons  and  the  general  progress 
of  the  class.  A  list  of  all  the  subjects  that  have  been  used 
during  the  term  for  compositions  on  the  slate  should  also 
be  kept. 

7.  Written  reviews  of  the  lessons  in  geography  and  his- 
tory are  perhaps  the  very  best  method  of  permanently 
fixing  in  the  memory  the  facts  taught  by  those  studies, 
and,  therefore,  should  not  be  omitted :  such  written  re- 
views, however,  should  not  be  classed  as  compositions. 

SPELLING. 

General  Suggestions  for  all  Grades. 

1.  The  exercises  should  be  both  oral  and  written,  but 
principally  written. 

2.  Two  lists  of  words  that  are  to  be  studied  by  the  pu- 
pils should  be  kept  by  the  teacher  of  each  class.  The  first 
should  include  only  the  words  selected,  as  prescribed,  from 
the  reading  and  oral  lessons.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  the  repetition  of  words  that  have  already  been  thor- 


30  EIGHTH   GRADE. 

onghly  fixed  in  the  pupil's  memory  by  exercises  in  previous 
grades.  Words  needing  review  on  account  of  their  diffi- 
culty should  form  a  part  of  the  second  prescribed,  or  mis- 
cellaneous, list  kept  by  the  teacher.  Both  the  miscella- 
neous words  selected  and  those  taken  from  the  Reader 
should  be  suitable  to  the  age  and  mental  development  of 
the  pupils. 

3.  "  Miscellaneous  words "  will  include  the  ordinary 
proper  names  of  persons  (not  the  surnames),  and  common 
words  of  the  daily  life  of  the  household,  the  shop,  and  the 
street. 

In  the  selection  of  proper  names,  geographical  and 
personal,  special  care  should  be  taken  to  include  only  such 
as  the  pupils  may  have  occasion  to  use  in  writing ;  as 
Chicago,  Brooklyn,  and  Aaron,  and  not  Tapajos,  Pyrrhus, 
and  Richelieu. 

4.  In  writing  short  sentences  from  dictation,  special  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  words  which  are  similar  in 
sound  but  are  spelled  differently.  Iftstances  will  present 
themselves,  both  in  the  selections  from  the  reading  lessons 
and  in  the  miscellaneous  words.  Thus  piece  will  require 
to  be  compared  and  contrasted  with  j?eace  ;  principle  with 
jprincipal,  etc. 

5,  The  written  exercises  should  be  as  neat  as  possible, 
care  being  taken  to  train  pupils  in  habits  of  orderlj"  ar- 
rangement of  their  work  on  the  slate  and  on  paper. 

6,  When  sentences  are  given,  particular  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  ordinary  troublesome  monosyllables,  the 
proper  use  of  capitals,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case,  the 
period,  the  interrogation  mark,  and  the  use  of  the  hyphen 
in  a  word  divided  at  the  end  of  a  line. 


MEANING  AND   USE   OF   WORDS.  31 

MEANING    AND    USE    OF    WORDS. 

General  Suggestions  for  all  Grades. 

1.  In  selecting  words  for  these  exercises,  two  leading 
purposes  shonld  be  specially  kept  in  view  :  (1)  To  impress 
or  illustrate  the  particular  meaning  of  the  word  as  used  in 
the  lesson  ;  (2)  to  enlarge  and  correct  the  pupil's  own  vo- 
cabulary. 

2.  Where  a  word  has,  in  common  use,  two  or  more 
meanings  quite  diverse,  a  separate  illustration  should  be 
required  for  each  ;  and  where  several  words  differently 
spelled  have  the  same  or  a  similar  pronunciation,  a  sepa- 
rate construction  should  be  required  for  each  in  the  writ- 
ten exercises. 

3.  A  pupil's  vocabulary  should  be  understood  to  consist 
of  the  words  that  he  will  use  in  speaking  and  writing,  and 
of  those  words  only.  Words  that  are  found  chiefly  in 
books,  and  in  reference  to  which  an  appeal  to  the  dic- 
tionary must  be  made,  are  of  little  or  no  importance  so  far 
as  the  pupils  in  our  schools  are  concerned.  Such  words 
as  "  through,"  "  chimney,"  and  "  apron,"  which  the  schol- 
ars habitually  use  correctly  in  speech,  should  be  spelled ; 
to  require  a  special  sentence  for  their  use  is  a  waste  of 
time.  "Valetudinarian," '' argosy,"  "asphyxia,"  "proto- 
plasm," and  others,  which  the  pupil  may  never  use  in  con- 
struction, the  teacher  should  carefully  avoid.  When  such 
words  do  occur  in  the  reading  lesson  or  elsewhere,  for  the 
illustration  of  the  passage  the  meaning  should  be  given  by 
the  teacher,  no  special  memorizing  on  the  part  of  the  pu- 
pils being  required.  The  context  and  the  dictionary  will 
do  what  little  remains  to  be  done.  To  spell  such  words, 
or  to  use  them  in  sentences,  is  worse  than  idle. 


32  EIGHTH   GEADE. 

4.  Do  not  attempt  too  mnch.  Four  or  five  words  a  day 
are  enough,  if  thoroughly  taught  and  carefully  reviewed. 
Of  these  words  the  teachers  should  keep  special  lists,  and 
class  lists  should  be  compared,  in  oi-der  that  useless  dupli- 
cation may  be  avoided.  The  intelligent  use  of  a  word  in 
a  sentence  constructed  by  the  pnpiL  is  the  best  test  of  his 
knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  the  word.  Home  exercises 
in  the  construction  of  sentences  to  illustrate  the  proper 
uses  of  words  should  never  be  given.  ISTo  other  exercise 
is  so  dependent  upon  the  prompt  criticisra  of  the  teacher. 

5.  In  the  higher  grades  a  few  common  synonyms,  such 
as  divide  and  sejyarate,  reflect  and  consider^  etc.,  if  made 
to  form  a  part  of  these  exercises,  will  add  to  their  variety 
and  profit. 


ARITHMETIC. 

Mental  Arithmetic. — 1.  The  mental  arithmetic  should 
both  precede  and  accompany  the  written  arithmetic.  The 
principal  distinction  between  these  two  divisions  of  the 
subject  is,  that  when  the  numbers  involved  are  too  great 
or  too  many  to  be  readily  retained  in  the  memory,  the 
slate  should  be  employed  as  an  assistant. 

2.  The  exercises  in  mental  arithmetic  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  of  the  most  practical  character.  As  a  rule, 
examples  given  should  be  silently  wrought  by  the  class 
simultaneously,  and  the  results  obtained  be  written  upon 
the  slates  promptly,  and  at  a  given  signal.  The  analysis 
may  then  be  required  of  the  pupils. 

3.  The  explanatory  or  analytic  statements  made  by  the 
pupil  should  be  of  the  simplest  and  most  direct  character 
consistent  with  clearness,  and  all  unnecessary  repetition  of 


ARITHMETIC.  33 

formulae  should  be  carefully  avoided.  Where  this  is  not 
done,  the  principal  effort  of  the  pupil  is  to  recall  in  due 
order  the  set  form  of  words,  rather  than  to  form  the 
arithmetical  combinations  necessary  to  the  solution. 

4.  Besides  simple  examples  in  the  four  fundamental 
rules  and  federal  money,  very  simple  operations  involv- 
ing practical  applications  of  the  selected  tables  of  money, 
■weight,  and  measure,  should  constitute  a  portion  of  the 
exercises  in  mental  arithmetic. 

5.  In  the  explanation  or  analysis  of  examples,  in  mental 
as  well  as  in  written  arithmetic,  the  pupils  should  occa- 
sionally be  called  upon,  before  solving,  to  state  the  ques- 
tion. 

6.  Mental  exercises  in  arithmetic  should  be  conducted 
in  a  spirited  manner.  They  should  always  have  the  char- 
acter of  extemporized  exercises. 

^Vf'itten  Arithmetic. — 1.  The  slates  should  be  kept  in 
the  best  condition  as  to  cleanness ;  the  figures  should  be 
distinctly  and  neatly  made,  and  be  written  in  lines  parallel 
to  the  upper  edge  of  the  slate.  A  reasonable  allowance 
should  be  made  for  imperfections  in  the  forms  of  figures 
in  exercises  in  which  rapidity  is  required  ;  yet,  eveiy  effort 
should  be  made  to  fix  in  the  pupils  habits  of  care,  neatness, 
and  system  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  written  exercises. 

2.  Exercises  in  adding  columns  of  figures  should  be 
given  with  such  frequency  as  may  be  found  necessary  to 
produce  and  retain  accuracy  and  rapidity. 

3.  Every  form  of  counting,  whether  by  fingers,  dots, 
marks,  or  other  devices,  should  be  strictly  prohibited,  and 
the  class  should  be  frequently  tested  for  this  special  pur- 
pose. 

4.  The  pupil  should  name  only  the  results  arising  fi-om 
the  additions  of  the  successive  figures,  avoiding  all  that 


34  EIGHTH   GRADE. 

oral  or  mental  repetition  of  the  tables  which  is  known 
as  the  "  spelling  process,"  and  all  other  unnecessary  for- 
mulae. 

5.  The  above  remark,  in  regard  to  the  oi*al  or  mental 
repetition  of  the  tables,  applies  to  all  the  fundamental 
rules  and  their  applications.  The  processes  should  be  re- 
duced to  the  most  concise  form  practicable. 

6.  When  pupils  show  an  ability  to  add  two  or  more 
figures  at  a  time,  they  should  be  encouraged  to  do  so  in 
exercises  that  are  wrought  out  silently. 

7.  When  the  divisor  is  less  than  13,  the  long  division 
process  is  not  to  be  employed  or  allowed.  Examples  with 
such  divisors  as  60,  1,200,  etc.,  should  be  solved  by  short 
division. 

8.  Short  practical  examples,  involving  two  or  more  of 
the  rules,  should  frequently  be  given,  and  in  such  a  way 
as  to  cultivate  the  intelligence  of  the  pupil. 

9.  Examples  requiring  a  very  large  number  of  figures 
for  their  solution  should  be  avoided,  except  as  far  as  they 
may  be  necessary  in  order  to  give  practical  expertness. 

10.  Examples  should  be  given  to  test  the  pupils'  accu- 
racy in  writing  numbers  requiring  Os,  and  their  knowledge 
of  the  proper  methods  when  the  multiplier  or  divisor 
contains  Os. 

11.  Analogous  exercises  in  federal  money  ^ould  be 
substituted  for  those  in  the  simple  rules  referred  to  in  the 
preceding  sections,  as  soon  as  may  be  found  expedient. 

12.  Exercises  should  be  given  to  insure  facility  in  read- 
ing and  writing  federal  money,  and  in  reducing,  by  inspec- 
tio?i,  and  without  analysis^  dollars,  etc.,  to  cents  or  to 
mills,  and  conversely. 

13.  In  all  practical  examples,  instead  of  telling  pupils  to 
add,  subtract,  multiply,  or  divide,  give  the  question  in  such 


ARITHMETIC.  35 

a  manner  as  to  oblige  them  to  determine  for  themselves 
the  method  and  principle  to  be  employed. 

14.  Xo  detailed  analysis  is  necessary  in  addition  or  sub- 
traction. 

15.  Give  examples  of  bills  of  purchase  or  sale  involving 
several  items,  and  similar  to  those  required  in  daily  life. 

16.  Exercises  in  arithmetic  are  not  to  be  assigned  for 
home  study  except  in  the  First  Grade.  (See  §  155  of  the 
By-Laws,  1883.) 


FORMS   OF   ARITHMETICAL   ANALYSIS. 

A.  {Fundamental) — Multiplkation. 

Question. — If  1  yard  cost  $3,  what  will  4  yards  cost  ? 
Analym. — If  1  yard  cost  $3,  4  yards  will  cost  4  times  $3,  or  $12. 
KoTE  1. — Avoid  the  too  concise  form  "  will  cost  4  times  3,  or  12." 
Note  2. — Question. — If  $1  will  buy  3  yards,  what  will  $4  buy  ? 
Analysis. — Similar  to  A. 

B.  {Derived) — Division.     (1. ) 

Question. — If  1  yard  cost  $3,  how  many  yards  may  be  bought  for  $12  ? 
Analysis. — If  1  yard  cost  ,^3,  $12  will  buy  as  many  yards  as  $3  are  con- 
tained times  in  $12,  or  4  yards. 
Note. — Avoid  the  too  concise  form  "  as  many  as  3  are  contained  in  12." 

C.  {Derived) — Division.     (2. ) 

Question. — If  4  yards  cost  $12,  what  will  1  yard  cost  ? 
Analysis.— U  4  yards  cost  $12,  1  yard  will  cost  i  of  $12,  or  $3. 
Note. — Avoid  the  very  faulty  forms   "  as  much  as  4  is  contained  in 
$12,"  or  "  times  in  12,"  or  "  4  is  contained  in  12." 

D.  {Derived) — Division.     (3.) 

Qu^Mion. — If  $4  buy  12  yards,  what  will  $1  buy  ? 

Analysis. — If  $4  buy  12  yards,  $1  Mill  buy  i  of  12  yards,  or  3  yards. 

COMBIXATIONS  OF  A,  B,   C,  D. 

C  and  A.     Division  and  Multiplication. 

Question. — If  4  yards  cost  $12,  what  will  9  yards  cost  ? 

Analysis. — First  by  C  for  price  of  1  yard,  then  by  A  for  price  of  9  yards. 

C and  B.     Division.     {2)  and  (\). 

Qnestton. — If  4  yards  cost  $12,  how  many  yards  may  be  bought  for  $27  ? 


36  EIGHTH   GRADE. 

Analysis. — First  by  G  for  price  of  1  yard,  then  by  B  for  number  of 
yards. 

D  and  A.     Division  and  Multiplication. 

Question.— It  $4  buy  12  yards,  what  will  $11  buy  ? 

Analysis.  —First  by  D  for  what  $1  will  buy,  then  by  A,  Note  2,  for  what 
$11  will  buy. 

Note. — Avoid  set  forms  of  giving  questions. — Vary  the  order  of  statement 
as  far  as  is  consistent  with  perfect  clearness.  For  instance, 
the  "  C  and  B"  question  might  have  been  put  thus: 
Spent  $27  for  cloth.  How  many  yards  did  I  buy,  if  $12 
bought  8  yards  V  or,  how  many  yards  for  $27,  if  4  yards 
cost  $3  ?  etc.,  etc. 


TABLES   OF   MONEY,    WEIGHT,    ETC. 

The  teacliing  of  the  Tables  of  Money.,  Weight,  Measure, 
etc.,  should  be  restricted  to  the  following  : 

1.  Federal  Money. — The  usual  table,  its  notation,  and  halves, 
quarters,  and  eighths  of  the  dollar.  The  difference  between  the  full 
table  and  money  of  accounts.  Adversely  to  the  use  of  the  terms  sMl- 
limj  and  penny. 

2.  Length.— 12  in.  =  1  ft.,  3  ft.  =  1  yd.,  5^  yds.  =  1  rod,  220  yds.  = 
1  furlong,  8  furlongs,  or  1,760  yds.,  or  5,280  ft.  =  1  mile. 

3.  Surface. — 144  sq.  in.  ^  1  sq.  ft,  9  sq.  ft.  =  1  sq.  yd.,  30J  sq.  yds. 
=  1  sq.  rod. 

4.  Solidity.— 1,72S  cu.  in.  =  1  cu.  ft.,  27  cu.  ft.  =  1  cu.  yd.,  128  cu. 
ft.  =  1  cord  of  wood. 

5.  Dry  Capacity. — 2  pts.  =  1  qt. ,  8  qts.  =  1  peck,  4  pecks,  or  2,150 
cu.  in.  =  1  bu.,  36  bu.  =  1  chaldron. 

6.  Liquid  Capacity. — 4  gills  =  1  pt. ,  2  pts.  =  1  qt.,  4  qts.,  or  231  cu. 
in.  =  1  gal. 

Note. — The  dry  quart  is  about  one-sixth  greater  than  the  liquid 
quart. 

7.  Awirdupois  Weight.— IQ  oz.  =  1  lb.,  100  lbs.  =  1  cwt.,  2,000  lbs., 
or  20  cwt.  =  1  ton,  2,240  lbs.  =  1  long  ton,  or  old  ton. 

Note. — The  pound  avoirdupois  =  7,000  grains  troy;  the  ounce  =  437^ 
grains. 

8.  Troy  Weight— 24:  grs.  =  1  dwt.,  20  dwt.  =  1  oz.,  12  oz.  =  1  lb. 


GEOGKAPIIY.  87 

Note. — The  pound  troy  contains  5,760  grains  ;  the  ounce,  480  grains. 
The  pound  troy  is  the  standard  unit  of  weight. 

Time-tahle  and  Calendar. — Explain  leap  year.    Tell  time  by  the  clock. 

Miscellaneous  Table. — Teach  dozen,  r/ross,  scoi'e,  quire,  ream. 

General  Note. — Pupils  should  be  carefully  taught  the  meanings, 
uses,  and  simple  practical  applications  of  these  tables. 


GEOGEAPHY. 

General  Suggestions  for  all  Grades. 

1.  It  is  of  the  first  importance  that  geography  should  be 
so  taught  and  reviewed,  as  not  to  leave  in  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  a  mere  collection  of  facts,  without  mutual  relation 
or  dependence.  On  the  contrary,  the  pupil  should,  from 
the  first,  be  taught  to  consider  the  earth  as  man's  dwelling- 
place — its  motions  as  bringing  him  the  alternation  of  day 
and  night,  and  the  changes  of  the  seasons — its  laiul- surface 
as  the  chief  theatre  of  animal  and  vegetable  life — the 
ocean  as  the  world's  broad  highway,  and  the  exhaustless 
source  of  clouds  and  rains,  so  necessary  to  every  form  of 
life  on  the  land-surface ;  its  currents  as  modifying  the 
climate  of  continents  and  islands — the  great  permanent 
air-currents  as  carrying  to  the  land  the  moisture  from  the 
sea — the  mountains  as  its  condensers,  as  well  as  the  chief 
source  of  mineral  wealth — the  springs  and  rivers,  with 
their  branches,  as  carrying  back  again  the  ever-circulating 
water  of  the  ocean — and  its  cities  and  toic/is,  not  as  black 
dots  on  a  map,  in  colored  patches  which  he  has  learned  to 
call  countries,  perhaps  near  some  crooked  black  streaks, 
which  he  has  learned  to  call  rivers,  but  as  the  centres  of 
social  life  and  development,  the  seats  of  government,  and 
the  crowded,  busy  hives  of  human  industry  and  intelli- 
gence. 


38  EIGHTH   GRADE. 

When  geography  is  thus  taught,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting,  important,  and  practical  of  studies ;  but,  if  it 
is  taught  chiefly  as  a  description,  by  unvarying  formulae, 
of  rivers,  capes,  peninsulas,  boundaries,  etc.,  supplemented, 
perhaps,  by  a  precise,  verbatim  repetition  of  the  descrip- 
tive geography,  as  contained  in  even  the  very  best  text- 
book, it  is  one  of  the  dullest  and  most  unprofitable. 

2.  Globes  and  maps  are  indispensable  auxiliaries.  There 
is  no  more  common  and  pernicious  error  than  that  of  sub- 
stituting the  text-hook  for  the  teacher,  who  thus  is  degraded 
into  a  mechanical  hearer  of  lessons. 

The  pupil  should  be  taught  to  have  distinctly  before  his 
mind's  eye  the  contour  of  the  country  which  he  may  be 
studying,  and  its  leading  physical  and  political  features  ; 
to  this  end,  rough  sketching  of  maps  (from  memory)  will 
be  of  great  assistance. 

In  all  grades  there  should  be  exercises  in  latitude  and 
longitude,  and  in  imaginary  travels  by  land  and  by  sea. 

The  teacher  of  geography  will  find  in  the  daily  newspa- 
per a  valuable  auxiliary,  giving  information  of  important 
events  transpiring  in  countries  under  consideration. 


GEOGRAPHY  (EIGHTH  GEADE). 

In  teaching  the  hemispheres,  only  such  topics  should  be 
included  as  may  readily  be  taught  by  means  of  a  hlack- 
hoard,  a  globe,  and  an  outline  map  of  the  hemispheres. 
It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  pupil's  first  im- 
pressions be  formed  from  the  globe,  rather  than  from  the 
flat  and  distorted  representation  of  the  map. 

The  following  are  the  principal  points  in  the  require- 


GEOGRAPHY.  30 

ments  of  tliis  grade.  Tlie  work  done  should  be  tested  in 
review,  by  placing  the  pointer  in  the  hand  of  the  pupil. 

Theybrm  of  the  earthy  its  magnitude,  the  continents  and 
grand  divisions,  their  relative  positions,  their  connecting 
isthmuses,  and  a  few  of  their  most  important  projections 
— the  oceans,  their  positions,  and  principal  arras  and 
islands — five  or  six  of  the  mountain  sj/stems  of  Amer- 
ica, and  a  dozen  in  the  rest  of  the  world  ;  three  or  four 
well-known  volcanoes — about  a  dozen  each  of  the  chief 
rhers  and  straits,  and  about  half  as  many  great  lakes — 
in  a  very  general  way,  the  location  of  the  most  important 
countries,  such  as  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
tnany,  China,  Jajyan,  etc.,  and  of  a  dozen  of  the  most 
important  cities  of  the  world.  With  each  of  these  cities 
and  countries  some  interesting  or  important  fact  should 
be  at  once  associated. 

A  general  notion  of  climate,  as  affected  by  distance  from 
the  equator,  by  elevation,  and  by  the  great  ocean  currents 
— the  motions  of  the  earth,  and  the  inclination  of  its  axis 
— the  seasons — latitude  and  longitude — the  zones,  their 
limits,  and  a  very  few  of  their  well-known  and  character- 
istic plants  and  animals — and,  in  a  very  general  way,  the 
location  of  the  chief  races  of  mankind.  Only  such  defini- 
tions should  be  included  as  are  strictly  elementary. 


SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Outline  Course, 

1.  Language  Lessons. — Reading  of  the  grade  of  a  Third  Reader  (a 
different  hook  from  that  used  in  the  Eighth  Grade) :  oral  lessons  on  ani- 
mals :  compositions  as  before  :  spelling,  meaning,  and  use  of  words  as  be- 
fore— at  least  one  hundred  and  fifty  additional  words,  and  a  review  of 
those  previously  taught. 

3.  Arithmetic — Written  and  mental. — Through  subtraction  of  com- 
mon fractions,  including  practical  applications ;  weights  and  measures 
— as  before — completed. 

3.  Geography — (without  text-book) — The  United  States. 

4.  Penmanship. — Single  words,  each  to  commence  with  a  capital ; 
short  phrases. 

5.  Drawing. — On  paper,  illustrated  on  blackboard,  from  dictation 
and  from  chart. 

Draw  two  circles  of  not  less  than  four  inches  in  diameter.  Two  bor- 
ders illustrating  the  principle  of  horizontal  repetition— two  different 
units  to  be  used  in  each  border.  Two  conventional  hastate  leaves. 
Symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  cordate  leaves  of  the  previous  grade 
in  trefoil  and  quatrefoil  One  example  of  surface  covering,  consisting 
of  the  repetition  of  a  geometric  unit. 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

L^  Angeles,  Cal. 


IXSTKUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


Lx\XGUAGE. 


The  general  instructions  and  suggestions  for 
Reading,  found  on  page  20  ;  those  for 
Spelling,  on  page  29  ;  those  for  the 
Meaning  and  use  of  words,  on  page  31 ;  and  thosj  for 
CoiLPosiTioN,  on  page  28,  are  to  be  taken  as  belonging 
to  this  grade  also. 

ORAL    LESSONS. 
On  Animals. 

It  is  particularly  important  that  the  teachers  should  bear 
in  mind  the  chief  purposes  of  these  lessons,  as  already 
explained  on  pages  22-25  ;  that  they  should  carefully 
conform  to  the  suggestions  there  given,  and  more  espe- 
cially those  relating  to  "  the  second  or  review  stage  of  the 
process." 

Collections  of  objects  for  use  in  the  class-room  are  indis- 
pensable. They  need  cost  nothing  except  a  little  effort  in 
procuring  and  care  in  preserving  them :  a  properly  man- 
aged class  will  gladly  assist  to  supply  tliem.  An  appeal 
to  the  pupils  just  before  the  summer  vacation,  with  a  few 
suggestions  as  to  what  things  to  look  for  and  how  to  pre- 
serve them,  will  produce  an  abundance  of  material.  Teeth, 


42  SEVENTH   GEADE. 

shells,  bones,  skins,  fur,  eggs,  large  insects,  pieces  of  coral, 
star-tislies ;  the  harder  parts  of  small  animals,  such  as  the 
feet,  bills,  wings,  and  feathers  of  birds ;  and  a  thousand 
other  common  things,  are  very  serviceable  and  readilj  pro- 
curable. Some  small  and  familiar  pet  animal,  loaned  to 
the  class  for  a  few  hours,  can  be  made  to  awaken  an  in- 
terest and  to  fix  indeliblj"  facts  that  are  important.  Pic- 
ture charts  and  large  wood  engravings  from  illustrated 
papers  are  among  the  desirable  things  that  are  easily  ob- 
tained. 

In  relation  to  the  special  work  of  the  grade,  the  follow- 
ing suggestions  are  made : 

1.  Zoology  being  a  science  of  classification,  it  is  evi- 
dently necessary,  even  in  the  following  simple  introduction 
to  it,  to  teach  the  most  obvious  distinctions  upon  which  the 
classification  depends. 

2.  Only  the  simjjlest  outline  need  be  taught,  with  such 
facts  and  details  as  seem  most  appropriate  to  illustrate 
the  subject. 

3.  The  process  of  classification  being  naturally  ohjective 
— that  is,  animals  being  classified  by  their  obvious  pecu- 
liarities— the  pupil  should  be  led,  by  exercise  of  the  ob- 
serving faculties,  to  discover  the  peculiarities  himself,  '^o 
part  of  this  subject  is  a  more  profitable  exercise,  and  none 
furnishes  so  great  a  pleasure  to  the  pupil. 

4.  Well-known  typical  animals  should  be  taken  as  the 
objective  basis  of  the  classification ;  such  as  man,  monkey, 
hat,  cat,  rat,  horse,  deer,  cow,  and  whale  y — eagle,  parrot, 
canary,  hen,  ostrich,  snipe,  and  duch  • — turtle,  alligator, 
rattlesnake,  2^\A  frog  ^— perch,  cod,  shark,  q\.c.', — hee,  but- 
terfly, beetle,  earthworm,  etc. ; — spider  and  crab  / — squid, 
snail,  and  oyster  ; — star-fish,  jelly-fish,  and  corals. 

5.  The   simplest    names  should  be  used,  where  possi- 


LANGUAGE.  43 

ble,  in  preference  to  the  more  scientific,  or,  at  least,  as 
preparatory  thereto  ;  tlnis,  it  is  better  to  use  the  term 
four-hamled  t\ia.n  quadiumayia I  gnawers  than  roclentia / 
scixitchers  than  rasores ^  two-winged  than  d'ljptera  j  etc. 
A  few  scientific  terms,  sucli  as  moUiish  and  hivalve,  are  in 
such  common  use  that  they  may  be  readily  and  profitably 
explained  and  applied. 

6.  Associated  facts  not  strictly  scientific — such  as  the 
uses  of  animals,  anecdotes  concerning  them,  peculiarities 
and  habits  which  the  pupils  have  themselves  observed  or 
have  learned  by  reading  or  otherwise — should  form  an 
important  part  of  these  exercises. 

7.  Tlie  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  acquire  as  many 
facts  as  possible,  by  their  own  observation  and  reflection. 
For  this  purpose  the  collection  of  animals  in  the  Central 
Park,  and  others  tliat  are  occasionally  exhibited  in  the 
city,  may  be  employed. 

8.  The  exei'cises  should  be  conversational^  the  reviews 
only  frequent  enough  to  assure  the  teacher  that  the  class, 
as  a  whole,  has  understood  the  instruction  given  ;  the 
instruction  should  also  embrace  exercises  in  classifying 
well-known  animals  from  a  miscellaneous  list,  giving  the 
reasons  in  each  case.  Too  much,  however,  should  not 
be  attempted. 

9.  Some  system  of  diagrams^  roughly  sketched  in  chalk, 
will  be  found  of  great  service  in  assisting  the  pupils  to 
remember  the  classification.  The  best  and  simplest  is, 
probably,  that  used  in  the  ordinary  "genealogical  tree." 
The  diagram  should  be  gradually  developed,  item  by  item, 
as  the  lesson  proceeds — the  whole  of  it  should  not  be 
given  in  the  preliminary  stages. 

10.  The  indispensable  classified  "  outline  "  can  be  readily 
prepared  from  any  of  the  school  manuals  on  the  rudiments 


44  SEVENTH   GKADE. 

of  natural  history.     Some  of  them  are  mentioned  below. 
See  also  "  General  Suggestions,"  pages  22-25. 

11.  It  is  not  expected  that  the  classification  should  ex- 
tend to  species  and  varieties,  sometimes  not  even  to  genera. 
It  is  desirable  that  pupils  sliould  have  some  definite  ideas 
as  to  the  relations  of  the  following  terms  used  in  zoology : 
kingdom,  hranch  or  type,  class,  order,  family,  genus,  spe- 
cies, variety,  individual.  These  can  be  best  exhibited  by 
a  diagram,  but  should  in  no  case  be  presented  by  formal 
definition.  All  but  the  last  four  should  be  mentioned  in 
describing  any  given  animal. 

12.  The  exercises  should  include  poi'tions  of  the  topics 
suggested  in  the  following  synopsis,  which  is  here  pre- 
sented for  the  guidance  of  the  teacher.  Ifo  teacher  or  class 
can  find  time  to  take  up  all  the  topics  presented  in  this 
synopsis.  It  is  to  he  expressly  understood  that  the  teacher 
will  use  only  such  part  or  parts  of  these  outlines  (or  of 
their  equivalents  from  other  sources)  as  the  Princijxd  of 
the  department  may  direct.  This  synopsis  comprehends 
three  successive  outlines,  each  complete  in  itself  or  with 
that  preceding  it. 

First  General  Outline. 

Distinction  between  organic  and  inorganic  objects  taught  objectively. 
The  principal  differences  between  animals  and  plants.  What  is  an 
m'gan?  An  animal  ?  Four  great  types  of  animals  (Cuvier's,  omitting 
the  protozoa).  Exercises  in  classifying,  by  types  only,  such  animals  as  the 
docj^  lobster,  dam,  coi'al,  shad,  wasp,  goose,  sUir-fish,  garter  fnuike,  shrimp, 
toad,  tortoise,  oyster,  etc.  :  the  reasons  of  the  classification  should  be 
given  by  the  pupil  in  each  case.  Each  type  to  be  then  briefly  defined. 
Why  vertebrates  are  placed  first,  articulates  next,  etc. 

Include,  also,  such  of  the  following  que.:tious  as  may  be  appropriate  : 
Where  does  it  live  ?  How  breathe  ?  Color  of  blood  ?  Blood  warm  or 
cold  ?  What  covered  with  ?  How  many  limbs,  and  for  what  use  ? 
Upon  what  does  it  feed  ?    Term  vertebrate  and  invertebrate. 


LANGUAGE.  45 


Second  General  Outline. 

Classes  of  Vertebrates. — (Tenney's  arrangement  is  brief  and  simple.) 
Illustrate  as  in  cases  of  the  types,  by  mentioning  animals  belonging  to 
the  several  classes,  mammals  (those  which  feed  their  young  with  milk), 
birds,  reptiles,  batrachians  (frog  kind),  fishes;  brief  description  of  each 
class  to  be  given.  Why  mammals  ^/'si  and  fishes  last?  Vse  questions 
of  first  outline.  Name  common  vertebrates  to  be  classified,  occasionally 
mentioning  an  animal  not  a  vertebrate,  in  order  to  test  the  attention 
and  accuracy  of  the  pupils  ;  for  example,  alli{jator,  robin,  mouse,  worm, 
lierring,  toad,  lion,  jelly-fish,  rattlesnake,  elephint,  flea,  hatck,  turtle,  etc. 
The  pupil  should  give  the  reason  for  the  classification. 

Classes  of  articulates  to  be  treated  very  briefly,  but  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  vertebrates.  Simplest  division  (as  insects,  Crustacea,  and 
uorms)  to  be  employed. 

Classes  of  moUusks — treat  also  briefl}',  by  referring  to  their  genei-al 
characteristics  only.  Teach  the  meaning  of  the  terms  uniralie  and  At'- 
ralce.  Specimens  of  shells  will  be  useful  for  illustration  ;  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  structure  of  the  animal  itself  is  far  more  in- 
teresting and  important  than  that  of  the  shell  which  incloses  it. 

Classes  of  radiates,  probably  treated  with  sufficient  fulness  in  connec- 
tion with  types.     Review,  if  necessary. 

Here  it  would  be  well  to  teach  very  briefly  the  classification  of  ani- 
mals as  herbivorous,  carnivorous,  and  omnivorous  ;  also,  the  general  re- 
lations of  the  teeth  of  animals  to  their  other  peculiarities,  such  as  their 
feet,  forms,  food,  di()estice  apparatus,  and  habits  ;  for  instance,  the  rela- 
tion of  the  talons  of  the  eagle  to  its  beak.  Also,  as  far  as  may  be  readily 
done,  show  that  animals  are  useful  in  various  ways  ;  the  carnivora,  for 
instance,  in  preventing  over-crowding  ;  and,  if  some  animals  are  re- 
ferred to  as  quadrupeds,  do  not  omit  to  mention  also  that  others  are 
bipeds,  hexapods,  octopods,  decapods,  centipedes,  myriapods,  and  apods. 
Better  say  two-footed,  four-footed,  etc.  Name  an  animal  with  two  feet; 
four  feet ;  six  ;  eight ;  ten  ;  twelve  ;  with  many  feet ;  no  feet. 

Third  General  Outline. 

In  this  outline  many  orders  should  be  omitted  by  the  teacher,  or 
merely  referred  to,  because  not  readily  treated  objectively.  The  fol- 
lowing embraces  all  that  may  be  tauglit.  Of  course,  the  whole  cannot 
be  taught  to  any  one  class.  Make  such  selections  as  may  seem  expe- 
dient. 


46  SEVENTH   GEADE. 

Mammals. 

Order  1. — Two-handed  {Bimana). — To  be  treated  briefly.  The  five 
races  of  men,  with  their  characteristic  peculiarities.  The  geographical 
distribution  of  these  races  to  be  also  briefly  referred  to.  Use  outline 
map  in  geographical  references. 

Order  2. — Four-handed  {Quadrummia). — A  few  examples  only,  ac- 
cording to  the  experience  of  the  pupils.  Refer  to  the  geographical  dis- 
tribution. 

Order  3. — Hand-winged  (Cheiroptera). — Use  a  drawing  or  a  dried 
specimen,  if  one  can  be  procured.  Any  interesting  facts  about  bats,  and 
their  nocturnal  habits. 

Order  4.  — Insect-eaters  (Insectidora).  — Omit  altogether,  except  to  name 
the  mole  as  such,  and  refer  to  its  small,  hidden  eyes,  etc. 

Order  5. — Flesh-eaters  {Carnuora). — To  be  treated  somewhat  more 
fully.  Refer  to  general  structure  of  teeth,  feet,  and  digestive  organs. 
Refer  to  cat  family,  using  common  cat  as  type  ;  dog  family,  using  dog  as 
type;  weasel  family,  their  form,  habits,  etc.,  naming  sable,  marten,  er- 
mine, and  mink,  and  referring  to  the  value  of  their  furs  ;  bear  family  ; 
also,  briefly  to  seal  family  ;  name  the  most  common  carnivora  found  in 
the  United  States. 

Order  6. — (Marsupials). — Refer  to  the  geographical  distribution.  The 
exception  of  the  opossum,  very  briefly. 

Order  7. — Q-naicers  (Rodents). — Use  the  rat  or  squirrel  as  a  type.  Re- 
fer to  peculiarity  of  teeth,  and  the  provision  for  their  continued  growth. 
Teach  about  the  rat,  mouse,  squirrel,  beaver,  rabbit.  Refer  to  the  icood- 
chuck,  porcupine,  and  guinea-pig. 

Order  8.  —  Tliick-skinned  (Pachyderms). — Treat  briefly  of  the  eUphant, 
the  rhinoceros,  and  sinine  families;  more  fully  of  the  horse  family,  in- 
cluding 7iorse,  ass,  and  zsbra.  Geographical  origin  of  the  horse,  its  dis- 
persion, and  its  influence  in  human  affairs. 

Order  9.  —  Cud-chewcrs  (Ruminants). — Relations  of  food  to  teeth,  stom- 
ach, feet,  etc.  Teach  three  families  :  1,  deer  family,  horns  solid,  de- 
ciduous; 2,  hollow-horned  family  (horns  permanent);  Z,  camel  family 
(hornless).     Refer  to  Uama  and  vicuna. 

Order  10. —  Whale-like  (Cetacea). — Refer  to  fish-like  character  of 
whale;  how  dissimilar ;  its  uses.     T\xq porp&ise  di.Ta.di  dolphin. 

Birds. 

1.  Birds  of  Prey  (Raptores). — Vulture,  falcon,  owl,  condor,  hawk, 
eagle.     Soaring  birds. 

2.  Climbers  (Scansores). — Parrot,  woodpecker,  etc.     Tree  birds. 


LANGUAGE.  ,  47 

3.  Perchers  (Tnsessorea). — Give  a  few  well-known  birds  as  examples. 
Tree  birds. 

4.  Scratchers  (i?rtSO/"fs). — Gallinaceous  birds  and  dove  family.  Ground 
birds. 

5.  'Runners  (Cursores). — Ostricli;  its  habits.     Ground  bird. 

6.  Waders  (Grallatores). — Crane,  stork,  snipe,  etc.     Shore  birds. 

7.  Swimmers  {Natatores). — Duck  family,  swan,  petrel,  penguin,  alba- 
tross, etc.  Water  "birds.  Refer  to  nests  oi  birds;  to  their  migrations, 
instinct,  etc. 

Review  in  connection  appropriate  parts  of  first  and  second  outlines. 

Reptiles  and  Frog-kind. 

Treat  very  briefly,  teaching  something  of  turtles,  crocodiles,  alligators, 
and  lizards ;  snakes  and  their  fangs ;  the  frog  and  its  transformations ; 
why  called  amphibious. 

Fishes. 

Treat  classification  very  briefly.  Show  the  two  groups;  first,  the 
group  of  hony  fishes,  including  the  order  Spinefinned;  perch,  porgy, 
blackfish,  bluefish,  weakfish,  etc. ;  and  the  order  Sofffinjied;  herring, 
shad,  trout,  salmon,  whitefish,  smelt,  goldfish,  cod,  flounders,  halibut, 
eel  ;  and  second,  the  group  of  cartilaginous  fishes,  including  the  stur- 
geon, the  shark,  the  ray,  etc.     Interesting  facts  in  regard  to  fisheries. 

Articulates. 

Tliese  present  many  advantages  for  jthe  school-room.  They  are  small 
and  easily  procured  for  perceptive  teaching.  A  simple  microscope  is  a 
great  assistant  in  awakening  an  interest.  Of  insects,  collections  of 
type  specimens  can  easily  be  made.  Only  tJte  sijnplest  and  inostintfreMincj 
fctcts,  fiotrever,  need  be  taught.  The  general  characteristics  of  this  class 
of  animals  should  be  explained — their  structure  and  the  functions  of 
their  chief  organs.  Their  wonderful  transformations  should  be  ex- 
])lained  and  exemplified;  difference  between  insects  proper,  spiders, 
and  many-footed  articulates  {myriajwds).  The  important  influence  of 
many  insects  upon  mankind;  destructive  insects. 

The  following  orders  may  be  taught  and  exemplified: 

1.  Membra ne-7cinged  {Hymenaptera). — Including  the  be^  family,  the 
ant  family,  the  icasp  family;  the  ichneumon  family.  Their  peculiari- 
ties, habits,  and  instinct. 

3.  Scale-icinged  {Lepid<^ptera). — Moths  and  butterflies,  caterpillars, 
etc.,  clothes  moth,  geometer. 


48  SEVENTH   GRADE. 

3.  Ttco-%dnged  {Diptera). — Mosquito  family,  wheat-fly,  house-fly,  etc. 

4.  Case-winged  {Coleopiera). —Beetle,  fire-fly,  weevil,  etc. 

5.  Ilalf-icinged  (Ilemiptem),  or  bugs;  cicadas  or  harvest-flies,  tree- 
hopper,  cochineal,  boat-fly,  etc. 

6.  Straifjht-winged  {Orthoptera). — Cricket,  katydid,  locust,  grasshop- 
per. 

7.  Net-icinged{NeuropUra). — Dragon-fly,  May-fly.  Refer  to  the  white 
ants. 

Spiders.  (AracJinida). 

Many-footed  insects  {Myriapoda). — Centipedes. 

Crustacea. — Crab,  lobster,  shrimp. 

Worms. — Earthworm.  (See  Darwin's  Vegetable  Mould  for  inter- 
esting and  useful  information.) 

Note. —It  is  important  to  distinguish  carefully  the  three  terms,  in- 
sect {i.e.,  six-footed  [hexapod],  or  true  insects),  arachnids,  or  eight-footed 
spiders  and  scorpions,  and  myriapods,  or  many-footed  millipedes  and 
centipedes.  In  using  a  representative  of  one  of  these  groups  it  should 
be  the  primary  aim  to  establish  firmly  in  the  pupils'  minds  the  ob- 
vious characteristics  by  which  it  is  distinguished.  Thus,  in  the 
insect  proper,  the  body  is  divided  into  three  divisions — the  head, 
the  body  (or  thorax),  and  the  hind-body  (or  abdomen).  The  head  is 
furnished  with  feelers  {antenna);  the  body  supports  three  pairs  of  legs, 
and  generally  one  or  two  pairs  of  wings ;  the  abdomen  shows  more  or  less 
clearly  a  number  (seven)  of  rings  or  joints.  In  the  arachnids,  the  head 
and  body  are  consolidated  into  one  division,  which  has  no  antennae,  sup- 
ports four  pairs  of  legs,  but  no  wings.  In  the  myriapods,  the  entire 
body  consists  of  a  series  of  very  similar  joints — not  grouped  into  divis- 
ions separated  (insected)  from  one  another — of  which  the  first  serves 
as  a  head,  whilst  each  of  the  others,  however  numerous,  supports  either 
one  or  two  pairs  of  more  or  less  imperfect  legs. 

Reference  Books. — Among  the  many  books  in  which  the  teacher 
may  find  an  unlimited  supply  of  interesting  material  suitable  to  this 
grade,  only  a  few  of  the  most  easily  procurable  can  here  be  mentioned. 
Any  of  the  ordinary  text-books  on  zoology ;  Hooker's  Child's  Book  of 
Nature ;  Wood's  Homes  Without  Hands ;  Wood's  Natural  History  ; 
Wood's  Man  and  Beast;  Stevenson's  Boys  and  Girls  in  Biology;  T.  R. 
Jones'  Animal  Creation  ;  Kirby  and  Spence's  Entomology ;  Lubbock's 
Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps ;  A.  B.  Buckley's  Progress  of  Science,  Fairy 
Laud  of  Science,  Life  and  Her  Children,  and  Winners  in  Life's  Race ; 
numerous  articles  in  Appleton's,  Johnson's,  and  Chambers'  Cyclopaedias. 


ARITHMETIC.  49 


ARITHMETIC. 

Wr{Ue7i  and  Mental. — For  suggestions  see  pages  32-35 
and  the  following : 

1.  A  remeio  of  Federal  Money  should  form  a  part  of 
every  grade  up  to  iliQ^ifth,  inclusive,  after  which  it  blends 
with  nearly  all  the  other  arithmetical  exercises.  It  should 
form  a  part  of  the  regular  class-work  each  week,  and  at 
the  monthly  reviews. 

2.  "  Practical  applications "  will  include  such  questions 
as  may  be  readily  given  in  connection  with  the  commonly 
used  tables  of  money,  weight,  measure,  etc.;  as,  "  In  f  lb. 
of  sugar,  how  many  oz.  ? ''  "  Eighteen  quarts  are  what 
part  of  a  bushel  ?  "  etc. 

3.  In  the  written  exercises  pupils  should  use  the  signs 
of  operation,  +,  — ,  x,  -h,  and  the  sign  of  equality,  to 
indicate  the  work  performed  and  the  result. 

4.  At  the  outset  the  subject  of  fractions  should,  as  far 
as  possible,  be  made  to  coincide  with  the  acquired  experi- 
ence and  simple  notions  of  a  child. 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS  FOR  ARITHMETIC. 

(With  Suggestions  and  Examples.) 

I. — The  idea  of  a  fraction  developed  ohjectively. 
The  equality  of  the  parts  to  be  very  carefully  illustrated. 
The  relatire  value  of  various  fractional  parts,  as  (jreater  or  less. 
The  definition  of  a  fraction. 

The  terms  of  a  fraction  defined,  and  the  order  of  statement. 
The  notation  of  fractions  and  location  of  terms,  or  order  of  icriting. 
Exercises  in  writing  and  explaining  fractions. 
What  part  one  integer  is  of  another ;  as,  3  is  what  part  of  7  ? 
Show  objectively  that  f  =  :J-  of  3. 

Fractional  expressions  Less  than  a  unit — proper  fractions. 
Proper  fractions  defined,  and  examples. 
3 


50  SEVENTH   GRADE. 

Fractional  expressions  equal  to  or  (jreater  than  a  unit — improper  frac- 
tions. 

Improper  fractions  defined  and  illustrated. 

Exercises  in  writing  proper  and  improper  fractions. 

Note. — The  consideration  of  compound  and  complex  fractions  is  re- 
served for  the  Sixth  Grade. 

II.— Fundamental  Axiom,  1  =  -;  or,  ^  =  1- 

Reduction  of  units  to  improper  fractions. — Analysis  A.     (Page  52.) 

Definition  of  mixed  numbers. 

Heduction  of  mixed  numbers  to  improper  fractions. — Analysis  A. 
(Page  52.) 

liednetion  of  improper  fractions  to  wJiole  or  mixed  numbers. — Analysis 
B.     (Page  52.) 

III. — Reduction  of  fractions  to  higher  terms.  [What  may  halves, 
thirds,  etc.,  be  changed  into  ?     J  ?  etc.]     To  be  illustrated  objectively. 

Examples  to  be  solved  by  inspection ;  also,  those  that  cannot  be 
solved  by  inspection. — Analysis  C.     (Page  52.) 

Term  Divisor  or  Factor,  with  exercises  in  finding,  by  inspection,  a 
Common  Divisor  or  Common  Factor.     Definition  to  be  given. 

Note. — Too  great  importance  can  hardly  be  given  to  this  exercise  of 
inspection.  The  application  of  the  principle  is  indispensable  in  many 
of  the  arithmetical  exercises  in  every  succeeding  grade.  With  proper 
training,  it  will  become,  within  reasonable  limits,  a  fixed  naental  habit 
requiring  no  conscious  effort. 

Greatest  Common  Dirisor.  Definition.  Examples  to  be  solved  by  in- 
spection ;  also  by  special  method. 

Reduction  of  Fractions  to  Loicer  Terms.     Exercises,  etc. — see  above. 

Definition  of  "  Lowest  Terms." — Exami^les  in  finding  what  part  one 
whole  number  is  of  another  :  corresponding  examples  in  tables  of 
weights  and  measures. 

Examples  to  be  solved  by  inspection  ;  as  ilo ui  ff  ni  etc. 

Examples  involving  the  special  method  of  finding  the  greatest  com- 
mon divisor  ;   as  f  |^,  ^f  ^,  etc.     Examples  not  to  be  too  long. 

IV. — Multiple — term  illustrated  and  defined.  Multiple  identical  with 
product. 

Common  Multiple — term  illustrated  and  defined  ;  also  least  common 
multiple. 

Exercises,  to  be  solved  by  inspection,  and  otherwise. 

Reduction  to  Common  Denominator — use  two  fractions  at  first. 

Application  of  common  multiple  to  reducing  to  common  denominator. 

Distinction  between  common  multiple  and  common  denominator. 


ARITHMETIC.  51 

Definition  of  common  denominator. 

Definition  of  least  common  denominator. 

Examples  in  reducing  to  least  common  denominator. — Analysis  0. 
(Page  52.) 

Examples  involving  preliminary  reduction  to  lowest  terms. 

V. — Impossibility  of  adding  quantities  with  unlike  names,  illustrated  ; 
add  3  dogs  and  4  cats  ;  3  animals  -I-  4  animals  =  7  animals. 

Adding  things  of  like  names. 

Adding  fractions  of  the  same  denominator — Examples. 

Use  of  common  denominator  as  the  indispensable  basis  for  the  work- 
ing and  explanation  of  Addition  and  Subtraction  of  Fractions. 

Addition  of  Fractions  of  different  denominators — Examples — Analysis 
a     (Page  52.) 

Importance  of  reducing  to  least  common  denominator. 

Note. — Say  "  Reduce  to  least  common  denominator,^^  rather  than 
"  Find  the  least  common  multiple  of  the  denominators.^*  Of  course,  the 
latter  forms  a  part  of  the  process  of  the  former. 

Only  the  numerators  added.     Why  ? 

Note. — At  the  outset  give  not  more  than  two  fractions,  but  advance 
beyond  this  limit  as  soon  as  practicable.  Give  examples  involving  re- 
duction to  lowest  terms. 

Addition  of  mixed  numbers.     Examples. — Analysis  C.     (Page  52.) 

Note. — See  that  the  sign  of  operation  and  the  sign  of  equality  are  not 
omitted.     Avoid  reducing  mixed  numbers  to  improper  fractions. 

Subtraction  of  Fractions  of  different  denominators.  Examples. — An- 
alysis C.     (Page  52.) 

Subtraction  of  Mixed  Numhers.     Examples. — Analysis  C.     (Page  52.) 

Note  1. — All  suggestions  with  reference  to  addition  of  fractions  apply 
with  equal  force  to  subtraction  of  fractions.  Say  "  Find  the  difference 
of  their  numerators  ;"  avoid  saying  "Subtract  their  numerators." 

Note  2. — Questions  should  occasionally  be  varied  by  asking  "Which 
is  the  greater  ?  "  or  "  What  is  the  difference  ?  "  etc. 

Note  3. — Give  practical  examples  involving  both  addition  and  sub- 
traction. 

General  Note. — Teachers  should  remember  that  arithmetic  is  not 
only  a  science,  but  also  a  practical  art  ;  that  this  art  involves  important 
devices,  many  of  which  have  already  been  taught,  and  the  principles  of 
which  have  been  explained.  These  devices,  such  as  reducing  to  lowest 
terms,  rejecting  terminal  Os  of  a  divisor,  etc  ,  should  not  at  any  time  be 
lost  sight  of.  Examples  of  such  character  as  to  require  those  devices 
should  be  given  occasionally  in  the  special  subjects  of  each  grade.    The 


52  SEVENTH   GRADE. 

omission  or  neglect  of  these  important  matters  will  be  a  serious  defect 
in  the  character  of  the  instruction  given. 

FORMS  OF  ANALYSIS  FOR  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Analysis  A. — Example — Reduce  5^  to  halves,  or  to  an  improper  frac- 
tion :   1  =  1;  5  =  5  times  f  =  ^i  ;  \^  +  i  =  V. 

Analysis  B. — Examples. — Reduce  ^.^  to  units,  or  to  a  whole  or  mixed 
number :  |  =  1  ;  -'^^  =  -i/-  -f- 1  =  7^.  This  may  be  expressed,  also,  as 
follows :  Since  |  =  1  unit,  -^2^  will  equal  as  manj  units  as  f  are  con- 
tained times  in  ^^ ;  or  will  equal  7^. 

Analysis  C. — Example. — Reduce  f  to  ninths:  1  =  | ;  i  =  9  ;  f  = 
2  X  t  =  t. 

Note  1. — In  teaching  this  analysis,  attention  should  be  carefully 
called  to  the  fact  that,  if  both  terms  of  a  fraction  be  multiplied  by  the 
same  number,  the  value  of  the  fraction  will  remain  unchanged.  Exam- 
ple :  Reduce  f-  to  twenty -eighths :  multiplying  denominator  and  numer- 
ator by  4  we  have  f  =  ^|. 

Note  2. — By  Analysis  Cit  is  shown  that  f  =  f .  From  this  it  is  evi- 
dent that,  conversely,  f  =  f  ;  or,  if  both  terms  be  divided  by  the  same 
factor,  the  value  of  the  fraction  will  not  be  changed.  Or,  again,  if  the 
question  be  asked,  "6  is  what  part  of  9  ?  "  the  immediate  answer  will 
be  f.  If  the  same  question  be  modified  into  "  two  3's  are  what  part  of 
three  3's,"  the  answer  becomes  f .  Hence,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say 
that  a  fraction  is  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms  by  dividing  both  terms  by 
their  greatest  common  divisor,  because  this  does  not  change  its  value. 

TABLES  OF  MONEY,  WEIGHT,  ETC. 

1.  Review  thoroughly  the  tables  of  the  Eighth  Grade. 

2.  Add  the  following  to  Long  Measure :  4  in.  =1  hand,  3  feet  =  1 
pace,  6  feet  =  1  fathom,  1^  miles  =  1  knot. 

3.  Surveyors^  Long  Measure. — 66  feet,  or  4  rods,  or  100  links  =  1 
chain,  80  chains  =  1  mile. 

4.  Surveyors^  Square  Measure. — 16  sq.  rods  =  1  sq.  chain,  10  sq. 
chains  =  1  acre,  640  acres  =  1  sq.  mile  or  section^  36  sq.  miles  =  1  town- 
ship. 

Explain  the  use  of  section  and  township  in  measuring  land  surveyed 
by  the  United  States. 

5.  Miscellaneous  Avoirdupois  Weight. — 60  lbs.  =  1  bush,  wheat,  196 
lbs.  =  1  bbl.  flour,  200  lbs.  =  1  bbl.  beef  or  pork,  100  lbs.  =  1  quintal 
of  fish,  62^  lbs.  or  1,000  oz.  =  1  cu.  foot  of  water. 


GEOGRAPHY.  53 

6.  Apothecarifs'  Weight. — Teach  the  table  and  its  use.  Show  that  its 
lb.,  oz.,  and  grain  are  identical  with  those  of  troy  weight ;  that  the  only 
difference  consists  in  the  subdivision  of  the  ounce.  Teach  the  fluid 
ounce  and  its  divisions. 

7.  English  Money,  etc. — The  usual  table  ;  the  value  of  a  pound  ster- 
ling— $4.87;  of  the  franc — 19  cents  3  mills  ;  of  the  German  mark — 23 
cents  8  mills. 

If  any  foreign  dollar  is  taught,  let  it  be  the  doUar  of  North  Germany 
— 71  cents  4  mills. 

8.  Angular  Measure. — Teach  the  following  terms:  Ctrde,  circumfer- 
ence, quadrant,  radius,  diameter.  Teach  the  notation.  Give  examples 
in  reading  :  as,  16°  17'  45'. 

60'  =1',  60'  =  1°,  90'  r=  1  quadrant,  360'  =  1  circle,  69i  miles  =  1 
degree  of  latitude.  Circumference  of  a  circle  =  3|  times  the  diameter 
(very  nearly). 

General  Note. — Pupils  should  be  carefully  taught  the  meanings, 
uses,  and  simple  practical  applications  of  the  above. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

United  States. — A  simple  outline  will  embrace  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  Local  Geography. — The  boundaries  of  the  country 
as  a  whole,  its  dimensions  and  population  in  round  num- 
bers, the  location  of  the  great  mountain  systems,  the  west- 
ern plateaux  (a  '"'■section''''  of  the  country  roughly  drawn  in 
chalk  upon  the  blackboard  will  be  found  efficient),  the 
high  western  plain,  the  low  central  plain,  the  eastern  slope, 
and  the  California  basin  ;  about  a  dozen  of  the  chief  rivers, 
including  their  great  branches ;  about  five  or  six  each  of 
the  great  lakes,  bays,  and  capes ;  about  twenty-five  of  the 
principal  cities,  and  the  names  of  the  several  States  and 
Territories,  individually  and  in  groups. 

The  capitals  and  a  few  other  important  details  of  the 
States  should  also  be  taught. 

All  local  geography  to  be  taught  with  the  assistance  of 
the  outline  map  and  the  pointer,  and  to  be  i-eviewed  with 


54  SEVET^TH    GRADE. 

and  without  the  map.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  sketch 
rapidly  on  slate  or  blackboard  outlines  of  maps. 

2.  Descriptive  Geography  will  include  a  very  brief  de- 
scription of  the  highlands,  lowlands,  and  drainage  system 
already  pointed  out ;  a  general  idea  of  the  climate  and  its 
gradual  modifications  by  latitude,  elevation,  and  distance 
from  the  sea ;  and  a  general  statement  of  the  leading 
agricultural  staples  in  the  order  of  their  latitude — rice, 
sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  corn,  and  wheat ;  also  the  chief 
minerals,  and  the  principal  animals,  wild  as  well  as  do- 
mestic. 

Special  care  is  to  be  taken  that  this  outline  shall  be 
such  that  it  can  readily  be  completed  and  thoroughly  re- 
viewed before  the  promotion  of  the  class  to  the  next  higher 
grade.  The  descriptive  geography,  though  very  brief,  is 
of  the  highest  importance.  It  is  necessarily  based  upon 
the  map  exercises.  These  are  indispensable,  but  must  not 
be  permitted  practically  to  exclude  the  descriptive. 


SIXTH   GRADE. 

Outline  Course. 

1.  Language  Lessons. — Reading  of  the  grade  of  an  easy  Fourth 
Reader  :  aral  lessons  on  plants :  compositioiis  as  before :  spelling,  meaning, 
and  me  of  words,  as  before — at  least  150  additional  words,  and  review 
of  all  previously  taught :  easy  exercises  in  suffixes. 

2.  Arithmetic. — Written  and  mental.  — Common  fractions  completed. 

3.  Geography  —  (without  text-book). — General  Outlines  of  South 
America  and  Europe. 

4.  Penmanship. — Single  words  continued  ;  also  short  phrases  and 
easy  sentences. 

5.  Drawing. — On  paper,  illustrated  on  blackboard,  from  dictation 
and  from  chart. 

Draw  two  ellipses,  one  on  vertical  jtnajor  axis  of  4  inches,  one  on 
horizontal  major  axis  of  4  inches.  Draw  two  ovals  of  different  propor- 
tions. Compound  curves  on  vertical  axis.  Two  examples  of  vases  of 
different  styles.  Draw  one  conventional  leaf  and  one  flower,  two  views 
of  each  ;  the  same  in  an  original  design.  Draw  a  vertical  border, 
using  the  hastate  leaves  of  the  Seventh  Grade. 


INSTRUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


LANGUAGE. 


The  general  instructions  and  suggestions  for 
Reading,  found  on  page  20 ;  those  for 
Spelling,  on  page  29  ;  those  for 

Meaning  and  Use  of  Words,  on  page  31 ;  and  those  for 
Composition,  on  page  28,  are  to  be  taken  as  belong- 
ing to  this  grade  also. 

OEAL  LESSONS. 
On  Plants. 

1.  The  general  suggestions  given  in  connection  with  the 
subject  of  animals  in  the  preceding  grade,  in  relation  to 
the  extent  of  classification,  the  terras  employed,  the  col- 
lection of  objects,  etc.,  are  equally  applicable  to  the  subject 
of  plants.  As  a  field  for  cultivating  the  observing  facul- 
ties, the  study  of  plants  has  a  decided  advantage  over  the 
study  of  animals,  especially  for  educational  purposes,  inas- 
much as  the  objects  of  which  it  treats  may  be  exhibited 
more  conveniently  in  the  class-room,  and  may  be  examined, 
dissected,  and  analyzed  with  greater  facility. 

2.  The  classijication  of  plants  into  orders  and  families 
being  based  upon  distinctions  often  very  minute,  must,  for 
the  purposes  to  be  accomplished  in  these  simple  lessons,  be 
carefully  limited.     Only  a  few  common  plants  need  be 


LANGUAGE.  57 

classified.     Suggestions  as  to  the  nature  and  limitations  of 
the  classification  are  indicated  below. 

3.  The  first  lessons  should  train  pnpils  to  notice  how 
plants  grow  from  the  seed ;  should  show  the  structure  of 
plants  and  the  general  functions  of  each  of  their  organs 
of  vegetaiion — the  root^  the  stem^  and  the  leaf.  Make  se- 
lections from  the  followins: : 


A  few  large  beans  and  other  seeds  may  be  conveniently  examined  in 
the  class-room.  Soak  them  and  show  the  (jerm  or  embryo,  the  Sieed 
leaves,  the  coat.  Show  that  the  coat  protects  the  germ,  as  the  shell  does 
the  egg ;  that  the  seed  leaves  contain  and  supply  the  first  food  for  the 
infant  plant,  before  it  can  obtain  food  for  itself  from  the  ground  and  from 
the  air.  Plant  a  few  such  seeds  in  boxes  a  few  weeks  or  days  before 
wanted  for  study.  Show  the  development  of  the  root  and  the  stem,  the 
latter  always  toward  the  light.  Warmth  and  moisture  needed  first,  then 
light,  soil,  and  air. 

liooU^  kinds  of  ;  fibrous,  branching,  etc.,  parts  of  the  root — the  little 
sponges  ;  iises  of  the  root  to  the  plant ;  air  roots  of  certain  vines. 

Stcfyis,  varieties  of  ;  solid  and  hollow,  simple  and  branching  ;  varieties 
of  size,  from  trees  to  the  smallest ;  some  increase  from  inside,  therefore 
called  inside  growers  (endogens),  (corn,  sugar-cane,  palm  tree,  grasses, 
etc.),  and  have  no  bark.  Some  have  a  bark  and  increase  by  layers  of 
wood  just  under  the  bark  ;  therefore  called  outside  groirers  (exogens), 
(oak,  apple,  flax,  sunflower,  etc.).   Illustrate  both  kinds  by  specimens. 

8ttp. — Vegetable  blood — flows  up  and  down  through  the  bark,  and 
the  young  wood  under  it.  Uses  of  the  bark  in  circulation,  respiration, 
growth,  and  protection. 

Leaver. — Parts;  blade,  foot-stalk,  stipules:  kinds  of;  mostly  flat 
blades  and  needle-shaped  ;  examples.  Simple  leaves  ;  compound 
leaves  ;  examples.  Forms  of  flat  leaves  {very  briefly)  from  objects  ;  use 
simple  terms,  round,  heart-shaped,  etc.,  instead  of  orbicular,  cordate, 
hastate,  etc.  Marcfins  {very  briefly),  entire,  toothed,  wavy,  jagged.  Vein- 
ing  ;  ribs,  veins,  veinlets ;  net-veined,  parallel-veined.  Green  jmlp  of 
leaf — all  inclosed  in  transparent  skin.  Seed-leaves — of  embryo— division 
of  plants  into  those  having  one  seed-leaf,  two  seed-leaves,  many  seed- 
leaves  ;  examples  of  each. 

Show  the  important  connection  of  the  character  of  the  veining  and  the 
number  of  the  seed-leaves,  with  the  method  of  growth  of  stem,  as  inside 
3* 


58  SIXTH    GRADE. 

growers  and  outwJe  groiners.  Which  of  these  two  classes  of  plants  is 
more  directly  important  to  lis  ? 

Uses  of  the  leaves  to  the  plant..  The  countless  little  mouths  ;  the  ac- 
tion of  air  and  sunshine  on  the  sap  in  the  green  leaf.  The  food  of 
plants.  How  we  know  that  the  greater  part,  even  of  a  great  tree,  was 
taken  from  the  air  by  the  leaves.  How  the  leaf-stalk,  the  irregular 
form  of  the  leaf,  and  the  blowing  of  the  wind,  all  help  to  feed  the  trees. 
Opposite  effects  of  the  Respiration  of  plants  and  of  animals  upon  air. 

Plants  as  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees — examples  of  each.  As  annuals,  bi- 
en7iials,  and  perennials — examples  of  each ;  perennial  herbs  (dahlia, 
sweet  potato,  artichoke,  potato).  Tubers  and  bulbs;  what  they  are 
— examples. 


4.  A  few  lessons  on  the  reproductive  organs  of  plants 
sliould  then  follow ;  the  Jhive)',  fruity  and  seeds.  Selec- 
tions and  limitations  to  be  made  bj  or  under  the  direction 
of  the  Principal,  or  equivalent  exercises  on  plants  substi- 
tuted by  him.  Flowers,  common  fruits,  and  engravings 
should  be  shown,  and  the  blackboard  should  be  frequently 
used.  The  flowers  and  their  several  parts  form  the  chief 
basis  of  classification. 

5.  First  show  the  parts  of  a  blossom,  taking  a  regular 
one  to  begin  with — as  a  lily^  a  iiiornirig -glory.,  or  a  hutter- 
ciip.  Use  also  the  blackboard  for  drawing  and  spelling. 
Analyze  so  that  the  pupils  can  see  the  parts,  showing  the 
calyx  and  sejyals.,  the  corolla  and  jpetals.,  the  stamens  with 
the  anthers  a,nd  pollen,  and  the  pistil  with  its  ovary.  Give 
a  sufficient  number  of  exercises  to  make  this  familiar,  and 
let  the  pupils  analyze  for  themselves.  The  principal  forms 
of  flowers,  as  hell-shaped,  wheel-shaped,  salver-shaped,  cross- 
shaped,  hutteiip I -shaped,  etc.,  may  then  be  shown.  The 
arrangement  of  the  blossoms  on  the  stem  (inflorescence), 
as  far  as  it  can  be  exemplified  by  actual  specimens,  as  head, 
racetne,  spike,  umbel,  etc.,  may  also  be  learned :  incident- 
ally, the  importance  of  insects,  especially  bees,  in  carrying 


LANGUAGE.  59 

pollen  to  the  pistil,  and  the  importance  of  the  sweet  fluid 
in  the  blossoms  as  a  bait,  and  of  the  colors  of  the  petals 
as  a  guide  to  the  insects. 

GENERAL  OUTLEN'E  OF  CLASSIFICATION  BY  BLOSSOMS. 

A.  (Series.)  Flowering  (pTuBnogamous)  plants.  Examples — rose,  lily, 
geranium. 

B.  (Series.)  JF^lowerless  (^cryptogamous)  ■pla.nts.  Examples— /^r/?,  wo.ss, 
mushroom. 

Use  only  the  familiar  terms.  Give  other  examples  of  plants  in  each 
series. 

Flmcering  plants,  two  classes. 

Outside-growing  {exogeiwus)  plants. 

Inside-growing  {endogenous)  plants. 

Familiar  examples  to  be  found  by  the  pupils  ;  such  as  rose,  buttercup, 
geranium,  pea,  potato,  grapevine,  etc.,  and  lily,  Indian  corn,  common 
grass,  etc. 

Illustrate  by  stems,  showing  the  rings  or  annual  layers  of  growth  in 
the  former,  with  bark,  mood,  and  pith,  and  their  absence  in  the  latter 
class.  Review  the  coincident  peculiarities  of  the  leaves,  as  net-reined 
and  parallel-veined,  which  afford  a  ready  method  (approximate)  of  dis- 
tinguishing these  plants,  thus  giving  opportunity  for  useful  exercises ; 
also  those  of  the  seeds,  as  of  two-seed  leaves,  or  only  one. 

Outside-groicing. — Including,  1,  orders  or  families  of  plants,  with 
blossoms  of  many  petals  {polypetalous) ;  and,  2,  orders  or  families  of 
those  with  blossoms  of  one  petal  {monopetalous).  The  xuipils  will  readily 
find  specimens  of  each,  the  popular  names  of  which  they  have  already 
learned. 

Tnside-grmnng . — The  orders  should  not  be  taught.  Nor  need  any 
instruction  be  given  in  relation  to  the  classification  of  cryptogamous 
plants, /fr7i«,  mosses,  etc.,  this  being  too  difficult,  and  depending  upon 
distinctions  not  sufficiently  obvious  for  the  purpose  of  these  lessons. 
Attention,  however,  may,  if  occasion  ofifers,  be  called  to  the  fntctifica- 
tion  of  ferns. 

Such  of  the  orders,  or  families,  should  be  taught  as  are  very  familiar 
and  depend  upon  quite  obvious  distinctions,  familiar  names  being  ex- 
clusively used.  Thus  the  mustard  family,  the  pidM  family,  the  crowfoot 
family,  the  rose  family,  the  lily  family,  etc.,  may  be  taught  as  far  as  the 
collection  and  presentation  of  specimens  render  it  desirable ;  that  is, 
not  the  mere  fact  that  there  are  such  families,  but  in  connection  with  an 


60  SIXTH   GRADE, 

actual  objeci,  and  in  answer  to  an  inquiry  about  fhe family  to  which  the  ob- 
ject belongs.  If  the  season  permits,  and  there  is  an  opportunity  for  the 
pupils  to  seek  for  specimens,  this  part  of  the  instruction  may  be  extended. 
Here  the  judgment  of  tlie  teacher  (never  to  be  superseded)  must  be 
carefully  exercised,  it  being  constantly  kept  in  view  that  the  object  of 
these  lessons  is  not  to  make  tJie  pupils  botanists,  but  to  create  a  basis  for 
the  study  of  natural  objects,  to  develop  the  faculties  of  perception  and 
reflection,  and  to  cultivate  facility  of  statement.  Species  need  not  bo 
taught  at  all,  although  the  pu-pils  may,  as  occasion  offers,  be  made  to 
perceive  the  diversity  presented  by  different  individuals  of  the  same 
family,  so  as  to  learn  what  is  meant  by  species. 

G.  The  common  uses  of  jjlctnts  may  be  taught  to  some 
extent  incidentally  with  some  of  the  above  instructions, 
but  more  fully  at  this  stage.  This  will  embrace  their  uses 
ioY  food^  dotfiing,  medicine.,  etc.  Take  our  own  plants 
first.  Show  that  the  7'oots  of  some  plants  are  useful ;  of 
others,  the  seeds  ;  others,  the  leaves  /  others,  the  fruit  / 
others,  the  hcvrlx.,  etc.  Some  few  plants  of  other  climates 
and  countries  may  then  be  referred  to,  as  cotton.,  rice.,  tea., 
sugar.,  coffee.,  etc.  The  relationship  of  these  plants  to  our 
own  may  then  be  shown ;  that  is,  the  families  to  which 
they  belong.  Do  not  let  these  exercises  become  a  mere 
repetition  of  a  part  of  those  of  the  Eighth  Grade, 

7.  Objects. — The  things  necessary  for  the  indispensable 
objective  presentation  of  this  subject  have  been  already 
sufficiently  indicated  in  the  text.  Good  drawings  may  be 
used  when  the  natural  objects  are  not  procurable. 

8.  Reference. — All  that  any  teacher  can  possibly  need 
for  any  part,  or  for  the  whole  of  these  outlines,  may  be 
found  in  Gray's  How  Plants  Grow,  Hooker's  Child's  Eook 
of  Nature,  and  Buckley's  Fairy  Land  of  Science  (articles 
on  Bees  and  Flowers,  and  on  Sunbeams  and  their  Work). 
There  are,  besides,  many  other  excellent  popular  works  on 
botany. 


SUFFIXES   AND   PKEFIXES^ — ARITHMETIC.  61 


SUFFIXES  ANB  PEEFIXES. 

For  the  Sixth  Grade,  exercises  in  suffixes  only  are  pre- 
scribed. For  the  liigher  grades  both  prefixes  and  suffixes 
are  required.  These  exercises  involv^e  certain  important 
changes  in  spelling  as  well  as  modifications  of  meaning. 
They  should  include  only  such  words  as  the  pupil  may 
readily  be  trained  to  use  in  oral  and  written  expression. 

In  order  to  insure  systematic  progress,  lists  of  these 
words  should  be  kept  by  the  teacher. 

The  following  groups  of  words  are  submitted  as  sug- 
gestive illustrations :  Pity,  pitied,  wvpitied,  jpitying,  piti- 
fully, piteous,  piteously.  Sweet,  sioeets,  srceeten,  siveeten- 
ing,  sioeetly,  sioeetness.  Just,  unjust,  unjustly,  justice,  in- 
justice, justify,  justif cation. 

AEITHMETIC. 

Written  and  Mental. — For  suggestions  see  pages  32-35, 
and  the  following: 

1.  Particular  care  should  be  taken  in  the  selection  of 
examples  that  no  one  of  them  be  so  intricate  and  prolix 
as  to  consume  a  large  amount  of  time,  without  affording 
proper  exercise  of  thought  in  the  application  of  arithmet- 
ical principles. 

2.  Too  much  importance,  nevertheless,  can  scarcely  be 
given  to  the  requirement  of  rapid  calculation  in  the  simple 
rules  of  arithmetic.  No  part  of  the  arithmetical  disci- 
pline has  a  higher  utilitarian  value,  whether  for  the  pur- 
poses of  practical  life  or  for  progress  in  the  more  advanced 
portions  of  the  study ;  for  nothing  is  more  discouraging  to 
the  pupil  than  to  find  that,  in  any  exercise  involving  other 


62  SIXTH    GRADE. 

than  a  few  figures,  his  results  are  almost  always  incorrect, 
from  a  want  of  habitual  accuracy  in  performing  the  simple 
combinations  involved  in  the  elementary  rules.  Teachers 
are,  therefore,  especially  advised  to  employ  every  variety 
of  proper  stimulus  to  make  the  exercises  for  this  purpose 
thorough  and  effective. 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 

Principle  of  Cancdlation. 

Its  identity  with  dividing  by  common  factors,  and  with  reducing  to  loio- 
est  terms.     Show  this  by  examples  in  fractions. 

Examples  of  simple  applications  of  cancellation  to  whole  numbers. 
Compound  fractions  defined  and  illustrated. 

Multiplication  of  Fractions. 

Multiplication  of  fraction  by  integer. 

Multiplication  of  mixed  number  by  integer.     Teach  both  methods. 

Converse  of  these  two  cases. 

Multiplication  of  fraction  by  fraction. 

Compound  fraction  same  as  this  case. 

Multiplication  of  mixed  numbers  and  fractions.  Generally  reduce 
the  mixed  numbers  to  improper  fractious  ;  also,  cancel  before  multiply- 
ing. 

Note. — In  this  last  case  it  is  sometimes  more  convenient  not  to  reduce 
the  mixed  number ;  as,  125f  x  i,  12|  x  §•. 

Examples  to  be  given  in  a  practical  form  at  as  early  a  stage  as  can  be 
made  expedient. 

Find  how  many  cents,  or  cents  and  mills,  in  a  given  fraction  of  a  dol- 
lar. 

Examples  involving  preliminary  reduction  to  lowest  terms. 

Note. — It  must  not  be  forgotten  by  the  teacher  that,  from  the  nature 
and  definition  of  a  fraction,  every  example  in  fractions  must  involve  or 
relate  to  division  in  some  way. 

The  following  explanations  and  suggestions  will  be  found  useful : 

Multiply  f  by  12  ;  12  times  f  =  2.£  _  51., 

Multiply  f  by  12  ;  12  times  |  =  3-fi  =  4|  =  4^.  Tliis  result  would  be 
more  readily  reached  by  the  cancellation  of  the  common  factor  4,  in 
the  multiplier  12,  and  the  divisor  8.  Whenever  possible,  cancellation 
should  be  used. 


ARITHMETIC.  63 

Find  i  of  12  ;  i  of  12  =  3  ;  I  of  12  =  3  x  3  =  9. 

Find  ^  of  12  ;  f  of  12  =  i  of  3  times  12  =  \  of  36  =  Sj. 

Find  |§  of  12.     Use  cancellation. 

Find  f  of  -.'^r  ;  i  of  A  =  -ft- ;  S  of  A  =  3  x  -^  =  A. 

Find  f  of  fr  ;  i  of  -,V  =  -h  ;  i  of  ,\  =  f,^ ;  f  of  -,\  =  3  x  -/,-  =r  f  i. 

Find  it  of  1^,-.     Use  cancellation. 

Division  of  Fractions. 

Division  of  fraction  by  integer.     Solve  as  compound  fractions. 

Division  of  mixed  number  bj  integer.     Solve  as  compound  fractions. 

Converse  of  these  two  cases.     (See  below.) 

Division  of  fraction  by  fraction.     (See  below.) 

Quotients  of  mixed  numbers  and  fractions.     (See  below.) 

Examples  in  finding  what  part  one  fractional  quantity  is  of  another. 

Complex  fractions — best  considered  as  cases  of  division  of  fractions. 

The  form  of  putting  the  questions  should  be  varied  as  much  as  possi- 
sible,  so  as  to  train  the  pupils  to  select  and  apply  the  right  principle  and 
method. 

Introduce  practical  examples  as  soon  as  possible.  The  teacher  should 
always  keep  in  mind,  and  should  impress  on  the  piipils,  that  the  an- 
alyses of  such  examples  correspond  exactly  with  those  of  similar  exam- 
ples in  the  Eighth  Grade,  the  essential  difference  being  that  fractional 
numbers  now  take  the  place  of  integers. 

Note. — The  question  :  "  If  4  of  a  yard  cost  $1,  what  will  a  yard 
cost  ? "  involves  the  finding  of  the  cost  of  |^  of  a  yard. 

•'  If  $1  buy  f  of  a  yard,  how  much  will  a  dollar  buy  ?  "  involves  $|. 

Give  examples  involving  simple  combinations  of  the  multiplication 
and  division  of  fractions  ;  also  addition  or  subtraction,  with  multiplica- 
tion or  division,  like  the  following : 

Bought  7|  yards  and  3^  yards  at  -flf  a  yard  ;  cost  of  the  whole  ? 

Bought  36  yards,  kept  9+  yards,  sold  the  remainder  at  $.j  a  yard  ; 
how  much  did  I  get  for  it  ? 

If  I  had  sold  it  for  $7^,  how  much  a  yard  would  that  be  ? 

If  I  yard  cost  $r,  what  will  -i*",  yard  cost  ? 

If  f  yard  cost  $5?  how  much  can  be  bought  for  |l5|  ? 

The  following  explanations  and  suggestions  will  be  found  useful : 

Divide  9  by  ^  (first  method),  9  =  ^^^  ;  e/  -h  ^  =  ^5^=  12^. 

Divide  9  by  ^  (second  method),  9-=-i  =  7x9  =  63;  9-J-^  =  iof 
63  =  12|.  From  this  method  it  is  seen  that  the  dividend  has  been  mul- 
tiplied by  7,  and  the  product  divided  by  5  ;  or,  in  other  words,  the 
dividend  has  been  multiplied  by  the  dicmr  inverted .     The  method  of 


64  SIXTH   GRADE. 

division  by  inverting  the  divisor  is  preferable,  as  it  more  frequently 
permits  cancellation  and  thus  shortens  processes. 

Divide  9  by  3^,     Reduce  the  divisor  to  an  improper  fraction. 

Divide  -i^i-  by  ^  :  1  -f-  ^-=i  ;  therefore,  -?t  of  1  -J-  t=-A-  of  i  =  U- 

Divide  7-i^r  by  Aj.     Reduce  to  improper  fraction. 

Note.  — Teachers  should  remember  that  arithmetic  is  not  only  a  sci- 
ence,  but  also  a  practical  art ;  that  this  art  involves  important  devices, 
many  of  which  have  been  already  taught,  and  their  principles  explained. 
These  devices,  such  as  reducing  to  lowest  terms,  cancellation,  rejecting 
terminal  Os of  a  divisor,  etc.,  should  not  be  at  any  time  lost  sight  of. 
Examples  in  the  special  subject  of  the  grade  should  be  occasionally 
given  of  such  a  character  as  to  require  these  devices.  The  omission  or 
neglect  of  these  important  matters  will  be  a  serious  defect  in  the  charac- 
ter of  the  instruction  given. 

It  will  be  readily  perceived  that  solutions  which  follow  the  steps  of  a 
logical  analysis  are  much  more  tedious  than  those  which  follow  a  rule 
derived  from  the  result  of  the  analysis.  The  methods  by  analysis  are 
essential  to  the  proper  teaching  of  the  principles  of  arithmetical  compu- 
tation, but  they  should  be  employed  in  written  arithmetic  no  longer 
than  is  absolutely  required  for  the  accomplishment  of  such  a  purpose. 


GEOGEAPHY. 

South  Ai7ierica. — The  geograpliy  of  South  America  is 
to  be  studied  only  in  outline.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
from  the  outset  that  no  part  of  the  work  be  made  so  full 
as  to  prevent  the  ready  com/pletion  and  thorough  review 
of  the  whole  requirement  of  the  grade  before  the  promo- 
tion of  the  class  to  the  ne.xt  grade.  The  following  are  the 
essential  points  :  The  boundaries  of  South  America ;  area 
and  population  in  round  numbers ;  simplest  physical  di- 
visions, as  in  the  United  States ;  the  names  and  relative 
positions  of  the  several  countries  ;  brief  statements  of 
general  facts  relating  to  the  climates  and  productions  of 
the  countries ;  the  names  and  locations  of  their  capitals, 
and  of  those  islands,  mountains,  seas,  gulfs,  bays,  rivers, 


GEOGRAPHY.  65 

lakes,  straits,  and  otlier  physical  features  that  have  already 
been  included  in  teaching  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

EurojK. — The  local  and  descriptive  geography  of  Eu- 
rope for  this  grade  will  include  the  following : 

General  boundaries  of  Europe  ;  area  and  population  in 
round  numbers ;  simplest  physical  divisions,  as  in  the 
United  States;  names  of  all  its  countries. 

In  relation  to  each  country  the  following  will  be  re- 
quired :  Relative  position  ;  large  rivers,  not  more  than  one 
or  two  ;  large  islands,  and  prominent  capes  and  mountain 
chains  (if  there  are  any) ;  one  or  two  leading  exports ;  the 
capital. 


FIFTH  GRADE. 

Outline  Cotikse. 

1.  Language  Lessons. — Beading  ot  the  grade  of  a  Fourth  Eeader : 
<M'al  lesso)}s  on  the  human  body  :  comjyositions  as  before  :  sjyelling,  mean- 
ing, and  use  of  words,  as  before — at  least  150  additional  words,  and  re- 
view of  all  previously  taught :  exercises  in  prefixes  and  svffixes. 

2.  Akithmetic. —  Written  and  mental. — Decimals,  and  practical  ap- 
plications of  common  and  decimal  fractions ;  also,  reduction,  ascending 
and  descending,  of  integral  denominate  numbers. 

3.  Geogkaphy. — North  America  in  outline,  and  the  United  States  in 
detail. 

4.  History  of  the  United  States  (without  a  text-book). — A  brief  gen- 
eral outline. 

5.  Penmanship. — Phrases  and  sentences  varying  in  length  and  de- 
gree of  difficulty. 

6.  Drawing. — On  paper,  illustrated  on  blackboard,  from  dictation 
and  from  chart. 

Draw  a  regular  pentagon.  Draw  two  varieties  of  trilobate  conven- 
tional leaves  and  two  conventional  flowers.  One  Greek  vase  without 
perspective  effect  or  ornament,  not  less  than  five  inches  in  height.  Two 
examples  of  historic  ornament  (borders),  Egyptian  and  Greek.  One 
original  border,  composed  of  the  leaves  and  flowers  used  in  this  or  the 
Sixth  Grade.  One  original  combination  of  the  above  leaves  and  flowers 
in  a  square  ;  repeat  the  square  for  wall-paper  or  oil-cloth  design. 


INSTRUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


LANGUAGE. 


The  general  instructions  and  suggestions  for 
Reading,  found  on  page  20  ;  those  for 
SpELLESfG,  on  page  29  ;  tliose  for  the 
Meaning  and  Use  of  "Words,  on  page  31 ;  those  for 
Composition,  oh  page  28  ;  and  those  for 
Prefixes  and  Suffixes,  on  page  91,  are  to  be  taken  as 
belonging  to  this  grade  also. 

ORAL  LESSONS. 
On  the  Human  Body. 

1.  The  chief  purpose  of  this  study  in  the  Grammar 
Schools  is  to  give  \\&ein\  practical  hnoioledge  of  the  laws  of 
health.  As  this  subject  receives,  at  most,  but  a  small  part 
of  the  time  of  a  single  grade,  it  is  the  more  important  that 
only  those  parts  of  it  should  be  considered  that  are  essen- 
tial to  the  main  purpose. 

2.  The  teacher  will  observe  that  Anatomy,  which  occu- 
pies so  much  space  in  many  text-books,  is  not  called  for  in 
this  grade,  except  as  far  as  it  is  necessary  to  teach  what  is 
specially  prescribed.  It  is  a  matter  of  little  consequence 
to  the  pupil  to  know  exactly  the  number  of  bones,  or  ver- 
tebree,  or  of  pairs  of  muscles  in  his  body,  or  to  repeat  their 


68  FIFTH    GKADE. 

scientific  names.  Only  those  anatomical  terms  and  facts 
should  be  introduced  that  are  inseparable  from  the  main 
subject  {physiology  and  hygiene). 

3.  Oral  descrvption  of  structure  or  function  should  take 
the  place  of  definitions.  These  should  be  omitted  alto- 
gether. 

4.  The  appliances  necessary  for  teaching  this  branch 
are  the  blackboard  and  charts.  The  teacher  should  care- 
fully consider,  at  every  step,  to  what  extent  the  subject 
can  be  treated  objectively.  This  can,  in  part,  be  done  by 
drawing  the  pupil's  attention  to  his  own  body,  as  in  case 
of  the  joints,  the  pulse,  the  veins,  arteries,  respiration,  etc. 
For  several  very  important  parts  of  the  subject,  there  is 
no  better  apparatus  than  that  which  can  be  procured  with- 
out expense  at  any  butcher's  stall — such  as  the  lungs  and 
windpipe  of  a  sheep  ;  the  diaphragm  ;  the  heart  and  part 
of  the  great  tubes  leading  to  and  from  it ;  the  brain  and 
the  bony  cavity  which  contains  it ;  the  eye  ;  portions  of 
the  spinal  cord  and  nerves ;  small  glands ;  and  portions  of 
limbs  showing  the  relations  of  muscles,  tendons,  ligaments, 
and  joints.  Kone  of  these  need  present  anything  offensive 
or  disgusting.  Add  to  these  a  small  knife  and  proper 
preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  the  instruction 
given  will  be  both  interesting  and  profitable. 

5.  A  syllahus  of  leading  points  is  subjoined.  It  is  not 
required  that  all  these  should  be  taught  in  one  class,  though 
all  are  important.  Neither  is  it  expected  that  any  point 
shall  be  treated  exhaustively,  nor  is  the  teacher  obliged  to 
follow  exactly  the  order  laid  down.  Any  order  (so  that  it 
be  an  order)  which  presents  the  parts  of  the  general  sub- 
ject in  their  natural  relations  will  be  satisfactory. 


LANGUAGE.  C9 


SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 

The  pupil  should  be  led  to  look  upon  the  body  as  a  complex  appara- 
tus for  the  use  of  the  mind.     To  know  that  it  consists  primarily  of — 

First,  a  bony  framework  (tlie  skeleton) ;  Second,  a  motor  apparatus 
attached  to  the  frame  (the  muscular  system)  ;  Third,  a  directing  appara- 
tus by  which  the  mind  controls  the  body  (brain  and  nervous  system 
and  sensory  organs) ;  Fourth,  a  general  envelope  protecting  the  preced- 
ing, as  well  as  serving  other  purposes  (the  skin). 

He  should  then  be  led  to  see  that  every  motion  of  the  body  or  of  its 
minutest  part,  however  slight,  and  whether  voluntary  or  involuntary, 
requires  the  destruction  of  a  minute  part  of  the  organism  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  destroyed  part  from  the  system — that  this  constant  destruc- 
tion and  removal  make  necessary  a  corresponding  reconstruction  and 
renewal,  by  means  of  new  material,  and  that  for  these  purposes  there 
are  provided — 

Fifth,  a  circulatory  apparatus — (the  blood-vessels) — to  carry  away  old 
material  and  to  distribute  the  new  ;  Sixth,  an  aerating  apparatus  (the 
respiratory  system),  to  purify,  warm,  and  enliven  the  circulating  fluid  ; 
Seventh,  a  system  of  drainage  (the  skin  and  kidneys),  to  take  from  the 
blood  a  large  part  of  the  worn-out  material ;  and  Eighth,  an  apparatus 
to  prepare  and  supply  the  new  material  (the  digestive  and  assimilative 
organs). 

Under  each  of  these  heads  a  few  points  are  noted  : 

1.  Bones — their  composition  and  various  uses;  the  covering  mem- 
brane; joints,  their  various  uses  and  lubrication— important  peculiari- 
ties of  the  spinal  column,  cautions  as  to  injuring  the  large  bones  of  an 
infant ;  the  repairs  of  broken  bones.  Compare  briefly  with  correspond- 
ing arrangements  in  cow,  fowl,  turtle,  fish.     See  charts. 

2.  Muscles  and  Tendo7is — their  appearance  and  uses — arrangement  of 
the  muscles  in  pairs,  and  why ;  how  attached,  how  able  to  contract  ;  ef- 
fects of  exercise  ;  use  of  calisthenics. 

3.  Nervous  System — means  of  becoming  conscious  of  the  external 
world — spinal  cord — its  importance  and  protection — its  many  pairs  of 
branches— effects  of  severing  or  injuring  the  spinal  cord  ;  care  of  in- 
fants in  this  respect.  The  sympathetic  system,  the  nerves  (as  tele- 
graphic wires),  the  brain  and  its  principal  functions  ;  uses  of  pain — uses 
of  sleep — excitement,  caution  against— late  hours,  stimixlants,  etc. 

Special  Senses — touch,  papillw — taste — smell — the  ear,  its  mechanism, 
hearing — the  eye.  its  mechanism,  sight — injury  of  the  eye  by  misuse. 

4.  Skin — its  structure  and  uses.     Perspiratory  glands  and  tubes — uses 


70  FIFTH   GRADE. 

of  perspiration — importance  of  bathing,  misuse  of  bathing  ;  importance 
of  proper  clothing — sympathy  of  skin  witli  lungs — with  digestive  or- 
gans— caution  against  exposure  of  limbs,  arms,  or  chests  of  little  chil- 
dren ;  the  skin  as  an  absorbent — danger  of  cosmetics  and  hair-dyes  ; 
treatment  of  burns  and  scalds,  etc. 

5.  Circulation — general  relations  of  heart,  arteries,  veins,  and  capil- 
laries— valves,  where  and  use — pulse— its  rate — rapidity  of  circulation. 
Effects  of  fresh  air  and  exercise  on  the  circulation  ;  limits  of  exercise — 
dangers  of  excessive  rope-]'umping,  etc.  Effects  of  sleep  ;  cautions  nec- 
essary— effects  of  tight  garments — of  scanty  garments — of  insufficient  or 
improper  food.  Wounds — how  to  know  when  an  artery  is  wounded, 
and  what  to  do. 

6.  Respiration. — Practically  the  most  important  department  of  hy- 
gienic knowledge.  The  apparatus — how  protected — arrangement  of  ribs 
for  flexibility  and  the  expansion  of  the  lungs — muscles  of  chest  and  dia- 
phragm concerned  in  respiration  ;  importance  of  the  diaphragm  ;  show 
its  positions  at  beginning  and  end  of  inspiration  ;  the  trachea  ;  the  or- 
gan of  the  voice — minute  structure  of  lungs — the  cells  and  their  mem- 
brane— exosmosis  and  endosmosis  simply  stated  without  using  the  terms ; 
intimate  relations  of  capillaries  and  air-vessels ;  frequent  full  inspira- 
tion a  means  of  increasing  the  capacity  of  the  lungs  ;  exercises  that  will 
ensure  this  ;  pernicious  effects  of  tight  lacing  on  the  capacity  and  ac- 
tion of  the  lungs.  The  air — its  composition — relations  of  oxygen  to  car- 
bon and  hydrogen  introduced  with  food — products  of  respiration  all  in- 
visible except  water— poisonous  nature  of  carbonic  acid  when  inhaled — 
in  wells — in  vats— effects  of  smaller  quantities;  other  poisonous  sub- 
stances thrown  off  by  lungs  and  skin — effects  of  tobacco,  onions,  liquor, 
teeth,  etc.,  etc.  Rapid  diffusion  of  gases  and  vapors — ventilation  of 
class-rooms — of  sleei^ing-rooms — simple  devices  for  ventilation  of  small 
sleeping-rooms  in  winter — why  called  "vital  air" — careful  inspection  of 
premises  to  remove  all  decomposing  substances,  etc.;  foul  air  from 
cellars,  sewers,  sinks,  water-pipes,  garbage,  gas-lights,  stoves,  etc.;.  brief 
but  distinct  statement  of  the  germ  tJieory  of  disease,  as  in  diphtheria, 
scarlet  fever,  cholera,  yellow  fever,  etc.;  simple  and  cheap  disinfectants 
— chloride  of  lime — chlorine — sulphate  of  iron — carbolic  acid — sulphur, 
whitewash,  etc.  Respiration  as  affected  by  position  in  standing — in  sit- 
ting— especially  in  sitting  to  write  or  to  draw  ;  importance  of  proper 
habits  in  this.  Popular  errors  in  regard  to  condition  of  drowned  per- 
sons— proper  treatment  for  their  resuscitation. 

7.  The  digestive  apparatus — the  teeth,  their  uses,  structure,  and  hy- 
giene— brief  notice  of  salivary  glands,  their  position  and  uses— of  the 


ARITHMETIC.  71 

gullet — structure  and  function  of  the  stomach — brief  notice  of  the  duo- 
denum, the  intestines,  lacteals,  etc.  —  importance  of  the  liver — tlie  link 
between  the  digestive  and  circulating  systems.  Dyspepsia,  its  prevent- 
able causes  and  serious  consequences — importance  of  chewing  the  food — . 
of  regular  hours  in  eating — of  light  suppers — of  good  cooking — the  art 
of  preparing  wholesome  food  the  most  important  of  household  arts — 
common  errors  to  be  avoided  in  the  preparation  of  food.  Common 
poisons  and  their  antidotes. 

Reperekce  Books. — Any  of  the  numerous  excellent  manuals  on 
Physiology ;  History  of  a  Mouthful  of  Bread,  and  The  Servants  of  the 
Stomach,  by  Jean  Mace  ;  Appleton's  Health  Primers  ;  Hooker's  Child's 
Book  of  Nature  ;  articles  Digestion,  Respiration,  etc.,  etc.,  in  Appletons' 
American  Cyclopaedia. 


ARITHMETIC. 

Suggestions  for  mental  and  written  arithmetic,  as  in 
preceding  grades.     Also 

1.  Definitions  pertaining  to  fractions  should  be  retained 
and  occasionally  rev^iewed. 

2.  The  exact  nature  of  decimal  fractions  should  be  ex- 
plained and  illustrated  ;  also  the  meaning  of  the  word 
decimal.  Show  that  decimal  fractions  may  be  used  like 
common  fractions  by  writing  the  denominator.  Illustrate 
by  the  decimal  notation,  showing  that  whole  numbers 
greater  than  9  are  also  expressed  decimally. 

3.  The  illustrations  may  embrace  the  following:  1. 
How  to  write  decimals,  as  7-tentlis,  7-hundredtlis,  7  thou- 
sandths, T-ten-thousandths,  etc.  2.  Show  that  the  n^i- 
m-erator.,  as  in  common  fractions,  is  written  first.  3. 
Show  that  the  "decimal  point"  and  the  ciphers,  M'hen 
used,  are  only  required  to  indicate  the  denominator.  4. 
In  reading  decimal  fractions  the  pupils  should  be  cau- 
tioned to  avoid  such  expressions  as  "  tens  of  thousands" 
for  ten-thousandths^  "hundreds  of  thousands"  for  hun- 


72  FIFTH    GEADE. 

dred-thousandths,  etc.,  etc.  In  connection  with  the  read- 
ing of  such  fractions,  pupils  should  be  trained  to  recognize 
readily  the  comparative  value  of  different  fractions ;  as, 
that  .3  is  greater  than  .0987,  or  .01  than  .009596,  etc. 
They  may  also  be  made  to  perceive  readily  the  wpproxi- 
inate  value  of  decimals  as  compared  with  simple  common 
fractions  ;  as  that  .7634  is  a  little  more  than  f  ;  that  .8741 
is  somewhat  less  than  f,  etc.  Previous  to  this,  however, 
it  is  well  to  teach  the  exact  value  of  certain  decinaal  ex- 
pressions; as,  .75  =  f,  .125  =  \^  .375  =  f,  etc.  These 
exercises  will  seiwe  to  render  the  subsequent  work  of  the 
pupil  intelligible. 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 

Reading  decimal  fractions. 

Exercises  in  telling  how  many  places  are  necessary  for  a  given  de- 
nominator, and  vice  versa. 

Writing  decimal  fractions. 

Reduction  of  decimal  fractions  : 

1st.  By  inspection.,  with  analysis  as  in  common  fractions. 

Examples,  mental  and  written. 

.3  to  .GO'S,  to  .OOO's,  etc.     .15  to  .OOOOO's. 

.3  to  .O's,  to  .GO'S,  to  .OGG's,  etc.     7.3  to  .G's,  to  .OGO's,  etc. 

Reduce  .700  to  lowest  decimal  tei'ms. 

Reduction  of  common  fractions  to  decimal  fractions.     Give  analysis. 

Use  principle — f  of  1  =  J  of  3. 

Reduce^!  to  .O's— |  of  1  =  i  of  3  =  i  of  30  tenths  =  .7^. 

Similarly,  3  is  how  many  tenths  of  7  ? 

Note. — Pupils  should  be  accustomed  to  read  decimal  fractions,  es- 
pecially hundredths  (in  subsequent  grades  applied  to  per  cent.),  so  as  to 
include  outstanding  fractional  parts,  where  there  are  any. 

Example. — Reduce  -^  to  .OG's. 

-A-  =  -jL  of  4  =  tV  of  4.  GO  (four  hundred  hundredths)  =  .36  t^. 

Reduce  MS  to  a  decimal :  §^1}  =  §|  =  |  =  ^  of  3  =  i  of  3.00  =  .75. 

Note. — Give  example  to  show  that  common  fractions  in  their  lowest 
terms  can  be  made  entirely  decimal  only  when  every  prime  factor  of 
their  denominators  is  either  2  or  5.     In  the  general  work  of  the  class, 


ARITHMETIC.  73 

pupils  should  rarely  be  required  to  continue  the  division  beyond  three 
or  four  places. 

Uedacing  Decimal  Fractions  to  Common  Fractions  in  tlceir  Loirent 
Terms. 

Rule. — Write  the  fraction  as  a  common  fraction  and  reduce  to  lowest 
terms. 

Examples:   .025,  .4125,  .87500,  14.125. 

Examples:  .07t,      .3i,      .66|,    5.11^,  .87i. 

Examples  of  this  class  may  be  solved  very  simpl}'  as  follows  : 

.V*7     —     •  7     ■"^     IdJI    —      7      ■*■     100    —     14- 

Note. — Pupils  should  be  made  thoroughly  familiai-  by  rapid  mental 
exercise,  usually  without  analysis,  with  the  decimal  expressions  for 
halves,  3ds,  4ths,  5ths,  6ths,  7ths,  Sths,  9ths,  llths,  12ths,  and  vice 
rersa,  using  preliminary  reduction  to  lowest  terms  whenever  possible, 

SiS  111  ~\~2 1    Hj    6XC< 

Addition  of  Decimal  Fractions. 

Examples:  Add  .2,  .05,  .008,  .7283.     Add  .0005,  .97,  .0101,  etc. 

Examples :  Give  mixed  numbers. 

Note. — Explain,  as  in  common  fractions,  b\-  principle  of  least  com- 
mon denominator;  the  necessary  additional  ciphers  may  be  "under- 
stood "  in  the  solution. 

Sahtraction  of  Decimal  Fractions. 

Examples  :   .1  -  .075  ;  1.001  -  .01009,  etc. 

Explain  as  in  common  fractions,  with  the  same  analysis. 

Multiplication  of  Decimal  Fractions. 

Note. — Do  not  give  large  denominators  ;  use  tJie  brief  rule  of  common 
fractions.     Cases  as  in  common  fractions  : 

1.  When  a  fraction  or  a  mixed  number  is  to  be  mtdtiplied  ;  as, 
4  times  .75,  17  times  8.047,  100  times  9.625,  1,000  times  1.3, 
Value  of  13  barrels  at  $8,375  a  barrel  ? 

2.  When  a,  fractional  part  is  to  be  taken  ;  as, 
.4  of  .83,  .4  of  75,  .4  of  8.75. 

How  much  is  .7  of  $38.45  ?  .079  of  $120  ?  .OOJ  of  $160.48  ? 
Value  .179  of  ton  @  $92  a  ton  V  at  $92.87i  a  ton  ? 

3.  Combinations  of  the  1st  and  2d  cases;  as, 
3.4  lbs.  at  79  cts.  a  lb.  V  $.79  x  3.4  ; 

8  cwt.,  75  lbs.  @  $2.47  a  cwt.  ?  $2.47  x  8.75. 
Note. — As  preliminary  to  2d  and  3d  cases,  give  mental  exercises  in 
finding  the  product  of  two  decimal  denominators,  as  lOths  by  lOths,  how 
many  decimal  places  ?     lOOOths  by  lUOths,  how  many  decimal  places  ? 
etc. 

4 


74  FIFTH    GRADE. 

Examples  of  cases  involving  reduction  : 

.024  X  .15=  ?  Product  of  numerators,  24  x  15  =  360,  the  new- 
numerator  ;  1000  X  100  =  100,000,  the  new  denominator.  Ans.  .00360 
=  in  loweist  decimal  terms,  .0036.  Why  cross  off  the  last  0  ?  To  di- 
vide both  terms  by  10. 

Note. — Many  questions  are  as  well  solved  by  the  application  of  a 
principle  in  common  fractions,  as  follows  : 

0.79  of  $14.83  =  .001  of  79  times  $14.83,  etc. 

Use  or  not,  as  may  be  judged  expedient. 

Division  of  Decimal  Fractions. 

There  are  two  cases  : 

1.  When  the  divisor  is  an  integer— 

7h-8,  8-1-7,  6h-5,  6-^-120,  7.2 -r- 6,  3.6-^-120,  3.6 -- 100,  etc. 
Put  question  in  several  ways  :  1st.  Divide  7.2  by  6.  2d.  How  much  is 
^  of  7.2  ?     3d.  How  many  times  is  6  contained  in  7.2  ?  etc. 

2.  When  the  divisor  is,  or  contains,  a  decimal  fraction  : 

6  -^  .03,  .8  ~  .005,  .004  -r-  .8,  .0036  ^  .024,  7.2  -^  .009,  8  -^  5.45, 
3  ^  7.203,  .2  -=-  8.75,  .3006  -h  7.4,  8.5  -r-  9.78,  8.638  -f-  9.5, 
8.638 -T- 4.3,  etc. 

All  examples  under  this  head  are  reducible  to  the  first  case  by  multi- 
plying divisor  and  dividend  by  the  same  number,  or  by  moving  the  de- 
cimal point  of  the  divisor  to  the  right  until  it  becomes  an  integer,  and 
moving  the  decimal  point  of  the  dividend  to  the  right  a  corresponding 
number  of  places. 

Note. — As  a  substitute  for  the  above  the  following  may  be  employed 
if  preferred  :  Show  that,  when  the  dividend  contains  a  less  number  of 
decimal  figures  than  the  divisor,  the  method  of  reducing  to  a  common 
denominator,  or  sa?ne  denomination,  may  be  applied.  Also  show  that, 
when  the  dividend  contains  more  decimal  figures  than  the  divisor,  the 
number  of  decimal  places  in  the  quotient  must  be  the  excess  of  tliose  in 
dividend  over  those  in  divisor. 

Applications. — The  most  important  applications  of  decimal  fractions 
will  be  found  in  Federal  money.  Simple  combinations  with  common 
fractions  should  occasionally  be  made  ;  also  simple  combinations  of  two 
or  more  of  the  rules  of  decimal  fractions. 

Use  the  principles  of  cancellation  and  redaction  to  common  fractions 
whenever  they  will  simplify  the  operation.  It  would  be  a  defect,  in  a 
class  that  had  completed  multiplication  of  decimal  fractions,  to  go 
through  the  long  process  when  finding  .125  of  a  number.  If  properly 
taught,  they  will  know  the  value  of  that  fraction  to  be  \,  and  will  pro- 
ceed accordingly. 


ARITHMETIC.  75 

Examples  in  finding  what  decimal  fraction  one  number  or  quantity  is 
of  anotlier  ;  especially  l»ow  many  hundredths — use  only  small  amounts 
or  very  simple  examples  : 

8c.-,  liow  many  hundredths  of  64c.  ?  $7.25,  how  many  hundredths  of 
$9.75  ? 

Solutions  as  follows : 

1st.  What  common  fraction :  -/j  =  ^  =  ?  ^f f  =  §^  =r  ? 

2d.  What  decimal  fraction  :  \  —  .125  or  .12^  ;  %%  =  .74^. 

The  last  case  is  the  extreme  limit  of  "  applications  "  in  this  grade,  in 
which  the  example  should  never  take  the  following  involved  form  of 
statement:  "Bought  for  $9.75,  sold  at  $7.25  profit,  how  many  hun- 
dredths did  I  gain  ?  " 

General  Remarks. — It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  teaching  of  prin- 
ciples and  their  most  common  and  useful  applications  is  the  principal 
matter  in  the  study  of  common    and  decimal   fractions.      Therefore, 

AVOID  LONG  EXAMPLES. 

Reduction  of  Integral  Denominate  Numbers. 

In  the  reduction  of  integral  denominate  numbers,  only  the  most  prac- 
tical of  the  weights  and  measures  should  receive  attention  in  this 
grade.  Teach  in  the  following  order :  Avoirdupois  weight,  Troy  weight. 
Linear  measure,  Surface  measure,  Solid  measure,  Dry  and  Liquid  meas- 
ures. Time.  See  that  the  tables  are  not  only  memorized,  but  under- 
stood. 

Reduction  Descending. — Why  so  called. — Denominations  always  writ- 
ten.— Do  not  allow  pupils  to  "  add  in  "  by  a  separate  line  ;  it  greatly 
increases  the  work  and  the  time,  and  indicates  mental  feebleness.  Ex- 
plain by  any  process  which  makes  the  multiplier  an  abstract  number. 
The  "adding  in"  is  identical  with  that  in  the  reduction  of  mixed 
numbers.  When  the  question  will  allow  it,  insert  frequently  the  find- 
ing of  the  value  at  a  given  price. 

Reduction  Ascending. — Best  taught  and  understood  in  immediate 
connection  with  reduction  descending  ;  at  first  by  reviewing  the  same 
example.  Do  not  allow  long  division  by  divisors  less  than  13  ;  nor  if 
cutting  off  Os  will  change  to  short  division. 

Explain  by  any  process  which  will  clearly  account  for  the  denomina- 
tions of  the  successive  quotients  and  remainders. 

The  necessary  analyses  have  already  been  given  in  the  preceding 
grades. 

Give  examples  in  finding  the  quantity  purchased  for  a  given  sum  of 
money  at  a  given  price  for  some  small  quantity,  such  as  a  pint,  an 
ounce,  a  foot,  etc.,  etc. 


76 


FIFTH     GRADE. 


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GEOGRAPHY. 


GEOGEAPHT. 


North  America. — The  outline  of  ISTorth  America  will 
include  its  boundaries  ;  area  and  population  in  round  num- 
bers ;  simplest  physical  divisions ;  the  names  and  bound- 
aries of  its  countries  ;  a  few  facts  in  regard  to  Greenland 
and  Iceland  ;  Canada — the  names  and  boundaries  of  its 
Provinces  and  Territories,  its  chief  rivers,  lakes,  and  other 
bodies  of  water,  chief  capes,  mountains,  and  islands,  its 
climate,  people,  form  of  government,  language,  chief  ex- 
ports, its  capitals,  and  other  lai'ge  or  important  cities  and 
towns.  Corresponding  points  in  regard  to  Mexico  as  a 
whole,  the  States  of  Central  America,  and  the  islands  of  the 
West  Indies.  In  the  simplest  and  most  general  waj,  the 
leading  articles,  if  any,  exported  to  the  United  States,  and 
the  articles  we  send  in  exchange. 

United  States  in  Detail. — 1.  In  teaching  the  geography 
of  the  United  States,  it  is  particularly  important  that  the 
time  of  the  pnpil  be  not  exclusively  taken  up  by  the  study 
of  mere  local  details — by  learning  the  several  courses,  etc., 
of  long  lists  of  rivers,  and  the  exact  situation  of  still  longer 
lists  of  towns.  A  certain,  but  limited,  amount  of  local 
geography  is  indispensable  as  a  basis  for  the  more  import- 
ant descriptive  geography. 

2.  The  necessary  local  geography  embraces  the  names  of 
the  several  States  and  Territories  and  their  division  into 
several  groups,  as  New  England,  Middle,  etc.,  etc. ;  their 
boundaries  or  relative  positions ;  their  important  rivers, 
lakes,  bays,  capes,  islands,  mountain  ranges  and  peaks ; 
the  capital  of  each  State,  and  a  few  of  its  other  cities  or 
towns,  if  of  any  importance.  All  these  should  be  care- 
fully learned  as  a  basis  for  the  subsequent  portions  of  the 


78  FIFTH    GEADE. 

study.     For  review  of  local  geography,  the  rapid  sketching 
of  maps  from  memory  is  the  best  general  test. 

3.  The  descrijttive  geograjphy  should  include  the  sim- 
plest physical  outlines  of  the  country  as  a  whole  ;  the  great 
mountain  ranges,  plateaux,  and  plains  ;  the  drainage  on 
the  Atlantic  slope  by  single  rivers,  and  by  extensive  com- 
plex systems  in  the  remainder  of  the  country  ;  the  cli- 
mate, with  its  modifications  in  the  several  sections,  as 
cold  or  hot,  wet  or  dry ;  the  leading  industries  and  the 
staple  agricultural,  mineral,  and  manufactured  productions, 
and  their  dependence  upon  the  physical  conditions. 

4.  Add  to  this  a  simple  and  very  brief  outline  of  the  gen- 
eral and  State  governments,  the  population,  its  four  races 
and  their  distribution  ;  the  great  commercial  routes,  na- 
tural or  artificial,  and  the  cities,  as  the  centres  of  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  industry. 

5.  The  descriptive  geography  of  individual  States  or 
Territories  may  then,  in  great  part  at  least,  be  deduced 
from  a  consideration  of  these  general  facts.  All  tiresome 
sameness  and  repetitions  will  thus  be  avoided,  and  the 
pupil  will  be  made  to  appreciate  the  real  importance  of 
the  study. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

General  Suggestions. — 1.  The  leading  purpose  of  this 
study  is,  that  the  pupil  may  understand  the  origin,  char- 
acter, and  condition  of  the  nation  of  which  he  is  a  part, 
and  that  he  may  be  fitted  for  an  intelligent  exercise  of  his 
duties  and  responsibilities  as  a  citizen. 

2.  It  is  obviously  impossible  to  treat  so  comprehensive 
a  subject  exhaustively  :  the  immaturity  of  the  pupil's  mind 
and  the  pressure  of  other  studies  alike  forbid.     Yet  the 


HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES.  79 

leading  facts  and  principles  may  be  readily  comprehended 
and  remembered,  and  the  outline  which  he  is  to  retain 
may  be  made  coherent  and  definite. 

3.  To  this  end  a  hrief  (jeneral  outline  should  be  carefully 
fixed  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  of  the  Fifth  Grade,  and 
be  reverted  to  freqiiently  in  the  remews  in  all  the  higJoer 
grades.  This  outline  can  be  given  most  expeditiously  and 
eificiently  by  means  of  oral  instruction  and  the  use  of  the 
map  :  it  should  be  very  brief  and  simple,  all  detail  being 
reserved  for  subsequent  study. 

4.  The  following  outline  is  presented  as  illustrative  of 
this  suggestion.  Its  modification,  or  the  substitution  of  an- 
other in  its  place,  is  left  entirely  to  the  discretion  of  the 
Principal. 

Brief  General  Outline. 

1.  The  people  of  the  United  States,  excepting  the  Negroes,  Indians, 
and  Chinese,  are  of  European  descent. 

2.  Four  hundred  years  ago  our  ancestors  knew  nothing  of  the  exist- 
ence of  this  Continent. 

3.  Spain,  guided  by  Italian  genius,  led  the  way  to  its  discovery,  ex- 
ploration, and  colonization. 

4.  The  first  permanent  English  settlement  within  our  limits  was  not 
effected  until  more  than  a  century  after  the  voyage  of  Columbus.  In 
the  interval,  Spain  and  Portugal  had  possessed  themselves  of  the  shores 
and  islands  of  the  Mexican  Gulf,  and  of  nearly  all  South  America. 

5.  For  a  century  and  a  half  the  English  colonies  were  confined  to  a 
narrow  strip  east  of  the  Alleghanies. 

6.  Spanish  slavery  exterminated  the  Indians  of  the  West  Indies. 
This  led  directly  to  the  opening  of  the  African  slave  trade,  and  in- 
directly to  the  introduction  of  slaves  into  our  own  country. 

7.  The  colonists  had  wars  with  the  Indians  in  whose  country  they  had 
settled,  and  with  the  neighboring  French  colonists.  The  English  were 
successful  and  took  possession  of  the  territories  formerly  controlled  by 
the  French. 

8.  Less  than  a  century  ago  all  European  settlements  were  yet  de- 
pendent colonies. 


80  FIFTH    GKADE. 

9.  The  necessities  of  distant  colonial  settlements  gradually  developed 
in  the  English  colonies  a  spirit  of  self-reliance  and  of  political  freedom, 
and  a  system  of  local  and  elective  self-government. 

10.  The  expenses  of  the  French  wars  left  a  heavy  deht  and  led  to  un- 
usual taxation.  A  tyrannical  system  of  taxation  led  to  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, which  fixed  the  national  boundary  at  the  Mississippi.  The 
colonies  became  States. 

11.  The  present  form  of  government  (the  Constitution)  was  established 
soon  after  the  close  of  the  war,  nearly  a  century  ago. 

12.  The  number  of  States  has  been  greatly  increased  by  immigration 
and  emigration.     The  population  and  wealth  have  vastly  increased. 

13.  By  purchase,  and  otherwise,  the  national  territory  has  been  ex- 
tended to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  to  the  Pacific  and  Arctic  oceans. 

14.  Since  the  War  of  Independence  there  have  been  three  important 
wars:  1,  a  war  with  England,  in  defence  of  naturalized  citizens,  and 
in  vindication  of  the  rights  of  neutrals  ;  3,  a  loar  toith  Mexico,  resulting 
from  our  annexation  of  Texas  ;  8,  a  great  civil  war,  arising  in  part 
from  questions  originating  in  our  colonial  history,  and  in  part  from 
more  recent  causes. 

5.  The  oral  lessons  in  History  given  to  the  Fifth  and 
Fourth  Grades  should  be  familiar  and  conversational. 
In  the  higher  grades  the  lessons  from  text-books  should 
be  assigned  by  topics  and  not  by  pages. 

6.  All  verbatim  recitations  of  sentences  and  paragraphs 
should  be  strictly  forbidden,  and  the  pupils  should  be  re- 
quired to  state  the  facts  in  their  own  language. 

7.  Only  such  dates  should  be  committed  to  memory  as 
are  indispensable  as  landmarks  in  history.  The  sequence 
of  events,  rather  than  the  precise  date  of  each,  is  what  is 
usually  necessary. 

8.  Maps  should  be  used  in  all  grades,  whenever  the 
subject  admits  of  their  use. 

9.  Historic  episodes,  however  interesting,  should  not 
receive  the  careful  study  given  to  the  essential  narrative. 
The  stories  of  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  the  conquest  of  Mex- 
ico, De  Soto's  Expedition,  John  Smith,  Pocahontas,  the 


HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  81 

Salem  "Witchcraft,  etc.,  should  indeed  be  carefully  read, 
and,  as  far  as  may  be  necessary,  explained ;  but,  unless 
great  care  is  taken  by  the  teacher,  the  pupils  will  be  apt 
to  conceive  that  these  are  the  most  important  portions  of 
the  history. 

10.  Important  incidental  allusions  to  European  history, 
such  as  the  rise  of  the  English  Puritans,  the  expulsion  of 
the  Stuarts,  the  French  Revolution,  etc.,  should  be  care- 
fully but  briefly  explained.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
throughout  to  state  all  facts  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to 
wound  religious  or  political  sensibilities. 

11.  Reviews  of  the  portion  already  taught,  with  fre- 
quent references  to  the  hrief  general  outline^  are  of  the 
highest  importance.  These  reviews  should  take  three 
distinct  forms :  the  Chronological,  the  method  usually  fol- 
lowed in  the  text-book ;  the  Biograjpliical,  requiring  the 
pupil  to  state  all  that  has  been  learned  in  regard  to  par- 
ticular individuals ;  and  the  Geograjyhical,  requiring  a 
statement  of  all  important  facts  relating  to  the  history  of 
a  locality.  Many  of  the  topics  treated  by  the  second  and 
third  of  these  methods  necessarily  become  cumulative. 
For  instance,  the  facts  relating  directly  to  Washington 
will  be  gathered  from  at  least  three  distinct  and  important 
periods  in  our  history.  A  connected  statement  of  the  im- 
portant events  that  have  taken  place  in  Philadelphia,  or 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and  Lake  Champlain,  or  in 
the  State  of  Virginia,  will  necessarily  cover  a  large  part 
of  the  general  subject  in  the  higher  grades.  Such  state- 
ments must  of  course  be  brief,  and  frequently  will  be 
mere  synopses. 

Many  of  these  i-eviews,  and  certain  parts  of  the  regular 
recitations,  may  be  made  spirited  general  exercises  for  the 
whole  class  by  the  use  of  the  slate  or  paper.     The  writing 


82  FIFTH   GRADE. 

of  the  few  essential  dates,  the  sequence  of  important 
events,  the  names  of  important  individuals,  etc.,  are  in- 
stances. The  narrative  reviews  will  necessarily  be  for  the 
most  part  oral. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  system  of  reviews  above 
suggested  must,  if  faithfully  carried  out,  result  in  a  thor- 
ough unifying  of  the  general  subject  in  the  mind  of  the 
pupil. 


FOURTH  GRADE. 

General  Outline. 

1.  liANGtTAGE  LESSONS. — Beading  of  the  grade  of  a  Fourth  Reader 
(a  different  book  from  that  of  the  Fifth  and  the  Sixth  Grade) :  oral 
lessons  on  common  minerals  and  metals :  compositions  as  before  :  spell- 
ing, meaning,  and  use  of  words  as  before — at  least  150  additional 
words,  and  review  of  all  previously  taught :  exercises  in  prefixes  and 
suffixes  continued  :  English  grammar  (without  text-book)— the  construc- 
tion of  sentences,  with  a  view  to  develop  a  knowledge  of  the  parts  of 
speech,  and  to  illustrate  the  terms  subject,  predicate,  and  object. 

2.  Arithmetic. —  Written  and  mental. — Denominate  numbers  com- 
pleted, with  practical  applications. 

3.  Geography. — Review  of  the  United  States  ;  other  parts  of  North 
America  in  detail,  and  Asia  and  Africa  in  outline. 

4.  History  of  the  United  States  (without  text-book). — Outline  with 
greater  detail. 

5.  Penmanship. — Writing  in  copy-books  continued  ;  practice  in  large 
and  small  writing. 

6.  Drawing. — On  paper,  illustrated  on  blackboard,  from  dictation 
and  from  chart. 

Draw  the  spiral.  Two  varieties  of  conventional  lobed  leaves  and  two 
flowers.  Combinations  of  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  this  grade  in  a 
geometric  form.  Two  examples  of  bi-symmetrical  ornament,  mediaeval 
and  moresque.  Two  original  examples  of  surface  covering,  using  the 
leaves  or  flower  forms  of  Fifth  Grade.  One  vase,  not  less  than  five 
inches,  without  perspective  effect,  ornamented,  using  the  spiral. 


INSTRUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


LANGUAGE. 


The  general  instructions  and  suggestions  for 
Eetuding,  found  on  page  20  ;  those  for 
Spelling,  on  page  29  ;  those  for  the 
Meaning  and  Use  of  Words,  on  page  31 ;  those  for 
Composition,  on  page  28  ;  those  for 
Prefixes  and  Suffixes,  on  page  61 ;  and  those  for 
History,  on   page  78,  are  to  be    taken   as  belonging 
to  this  grade  also. 

ORAL  LESSONS. 
On  Minerals. 

1.  The  "  General  Suggestions "  found  on  pages  22-25 
are  to  be  taken  as  indispensable  to  this  grade  also. 

2.  In  no  other  department  is  it  so  completely  within 
the  power  of  the  teacher  to  present  the  subject  to  thepe?'- 
ceptions  of  the  pupils  while  in  the  class-room.  Though  the 
objective  method  is  peculiarly  applicable  to  this  branch  of 
oral  lessons,  no  other  branch  requires  so  large  a  share  of 
imparted  information.  This,  however,  should  not  be 
given  by  the  teacher  until  nothing  more  can  be  drawn 
from  the  pupils.  Draw  out  first  what  they  can  readily  be 
led  to  discover  or  perceive,  and  then  any  other  facts  that 
they  may  remember  to  have  read  or  to  have  heard. 


LANGUAGE.  85 

3.  Points  that  should  be  specially  looked  np  and  prepared 

for  are  suggested  in  the  syllabus  given  below.  A  sufficient 
amount  of  detailed  and  very  valuable  and  interesting  in- 
formation may  readily  be  culled  from  Dana's  "Manual 
of  Mineralogy  "  and  similar  text-books,  and  particularly, 
under  their  several  heads,  from  articles  in  Appleton's  and 
other  cyclopaedias.  See,  for  instance.  Salt,  Sulphur,  Mica, 
etc. 

Read  also  in  Buckley's  *'  Fairy  Land  of  Science  "  the  very 
interesting  and  instructive  articles,  "A  Drop  of  Water  on 
its  Travels  ;"  "  The  Two  Great  Sculptors,  Water  and  Ice ; " 
"  Histoiy  of  a  Piece  of  Coal,"  and  Tyndall's  "  Matter  and 
Force." 

4.  What  has  been  said  in  preceding  grades,  as  to  the 
propriety  or  necessity  of  attempting  only  a  part  of  the 
subject,  is  equally  applicable  here.  Make  such  selections 
from  the  syllabus  as  may  be  thought  advisable.  W^hat  is 
done  should  be  systematic.  Do  not  attempt  to  treat  any 
topic  exhaustively.  A  large  part  would  not  be  understood 
or  remembered,  and  valuable  time  would  be  misapplied. 
A  properly  prepared  note- book  (see  page  25)  is  indispen- 
sable. 

5.  Be  particular  to  avoid  reviewing  a  topic  so  often  as 
to  destroy  the  pupil's  interest.  As  these  exercises  are  to 
be  simply  lessons  on  minerals^  and  not  in  systematic  min- 
eralogy, the  terms  form.,  structure,  cleavage,  hardness^ 
weight,  color,  lustre,  etc.,  need  be  used  only  occasionally, 
and  as  the  topic  may  make  necessary.  When  any  such 
term  is  used  it  should  be  carefully  illustrated  and  explained, 
but  not  defined. 

6.  Begin  with  Minerals — rocks,  as  mineral  aggregates, 
to  be  considered  afterward.  A  clear  perception  of  the 
general  properties  of  minerals  may  readily  be  given  by 


86  FOURTH   GEADE. 

commencing  with  ivater,  as  %oater — ice — steain.  Air 
should  follow  next,  so  as  to  lead  the  way  to  some  idea  of 
the  vast  amount  of  gas  locked  up  in  the  rocks. 

7.  As  a  preparatory  step,  lead  the  pupil  to  form  some 
idea  of  the  variety  of  forms  of  crystals,  by  briefly  com- 
paring, objectively,  of  course,  salt^  alum,  'borax,  quartz, 
mica,  7'ock  candy,  and  other  easily  procurable  crystals,  all 
of  which  should  be  carefully  labelled.  I  tis  not  here  nec- 
essary to  name  any  of  the  substances  to  the  pupil. 

8.  In  treating  of  ice,  draw  attention,  not  by  telling,  hut 
hy  jprojper  questioning,  to  its  transparency,  color,  lustre, 
weight,  solidity,  hardness,  fracture,  and  especially  to  the 
needle-like  crystals,  which  can  be  so  readily  shown  in  ice- 
films  when  water  is  beginning  to  freeze,  and  in  the  frost 
flowers  on  the  window-panes.  Lead  him  now  to  see  that 
a  block  of  ice,  or  a  snow-bank,  must  be  made  up  entirely 
of  such  crystals,  even  though  their  individual  forms  are 
no  longer  perceptible.  The  application  to  other  solid 
masses  is  obvious. 

9.  Show  that  many  fluid  substances,  as  in  the  case 
of  water,  upon  losing  their  heat,  crystallize  into  definite 
solid  forms  under  favorable  conditions,  as  in  melted  sul- 
phur, and  in  the  beautiful  zinc  crystals  which  cover  the 
surface  of  so-called  galvanized  iron,  a  piece  of  which  is 
an  easily  procured  and  a  desirable  "object."  A  sheet  of 
common  tinned  iron  (tin)  after  being  heated  and  then 
washed  with  nitro-muriatic  acid,  reveals  even  more  brilliant 
crystals.  Dwell  somewhat  upon  these  easily  shown  phe- 
nomena of  crystallization,  and  draw  special  attention  to  the 
mysterious  and  indestructible  force  which  somehow  re- 
builds the  molecules  of  water  or  of  salt  into  the  same 

forms,  no  matter  how  often  the  ice  may  be  melted  or  the 
salt  dissolved.      Few  topics  are  better  fitted  to  awaken 


LANGUAGE.  87 

thought  and  to  develop  in  the  young  mind  a  permanent 
desire  to  know. 

10.  It  will  also  be  profitable,  as  well  as  interesting,  to 
show  that  crystals  are  often  formed  from  substances  iji 
solution.  Alum,  salt,  or  borax  will  furnish  ready  and 
simple  means  of  illustration.  With  sulphur,  salt,  zinc, 
alum,  etc.,  as  with  ice,  the  crystals  may  become  so  massed 
as  to  be  no  longer  individually  distinguishable. 

11.  The  jprincijpal  jpoints  to  be  fixed  in  such  a  lesson 
on  crystals  are,  that  there  are  many  Mnds  of  crystals, 
some  formed  from  liquids  which  have  become  solid  by  a 
loss  of  heat,  and  others  that  were  deposited  from  solidiori. 
These  simple  facts  will  be  found  of  great  importance  in 
further  treating  the  subject.  They  should  not  be  im- 
parted by  telling,  but  by  means  of  the  pupil's  own  ob- 
servation. 

12.  The  pupil  is  then  prepared  to  compare  ice  with  a 
quartz  crystal,  which  should  be  presented,  but  not  at  jirst 
named — compared  first  as  to  the  resemblances,  then  the 
differences.  When  the  pupils  can  be  made  to  furnish  no 
more  ideas,  the  teacher  should  state  where  quartz  is 
found,  its  relative  abundance,  geological  importance,  eco- 
nomic uses,  etc.  Be  particular  not  to  introduce  an  un- 
explained term — such  as  the  NA:yiE  of  any  rock  or  mineral, 
as  gneiss,  or  gypsum.  The  name  means  nothing  until 
explained  as  quartz  has  been.  A  few  other  forms  of 
quartz  may  then  follow,  each  treated  in  the  same  way, 
and  each  in  its  turn  briefly  compared  with  those  that  have 
preceded  it.  This  will  constitute  an  excellent  review,  and 
will  thoroughly  fix  what  has  been  already  taught. 

13.  That  so  many  apparently  different  substances  can 
possibly  be  only  different  forms  of  one  and  the  same  sub- 
stance, quartz,  may  be  readily  illustrated  by  referring  to 


88  FOURTH   GRADE. 

sugar^  another  crystallizing  substance  and  well  known  to 
the  pnpil  under  many  forms,  solid  and  liquid. 

l-i.  Encourage  the  pupils  to  look  for  and  bring  in  speci- 
mens which  they  think  to  be  of  the  same  character  as 
those  studied.  Let  them  tell  why  they  think  they  are  the 
same.     Let  others  tell  why  they  think  they  are  not, 

15.  Having  thus  treated  of  quarts,  next  consider,  in  the 
same  way,  feldspar  and  Tyiica.  The  pupils  will  now  be 
ready  to  consider  a  rock.  Suppose  it  to  be  gneiss  or 
granite.  Let  the  pupils  look  for  the  minerals  in  it  [a 
cheap  single  lens  as  a  magnifier  will  often  be  of  service]. 
Then  consider  the  texture,  structure,  where  found,  uses, 
etc.  The  mineral  hornblende  and  its  important  varieties 
may  then  follow,  and  after  that  the  rock  syenite. 

16.  A  list  of  the  more  important  topics  suitable  to  this 
grade  and  taken  mostly  from  Dana,  is  subjoined.  From 
this  the  teacher  will  make  such  selections  as  the  Principal 
may  direct.  A  few  of  these  are  also  given  below,  with 
brief  synoptical  notes,  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  a 
proper  form  of  note-book. 

17.  The  qualities,  sources,  and  uses  of  common  minerals 
and  metals  should  form  the  chief  substance  of  these  les- 
sons : 

Minerals. 

Water,  air,  carbon,  diamond,  coal  (anthracite,  bituminous),  lignite, 
jet,  plumbago,  amber,  petroleum,  asphalt,  sulphur,  saltpetre,  salt,  borax, 
lime,  gypsum,  alabaster,  chalk,  stalagmites,  lime-stones,  crystalline  and 
compact  marbles,  quicklime,  hydraulic  lime,  alum,  talc,  soapstone 
(French  chalk),  meerschaum,  hornblende,  corundum  and  emery,  feld- 
spar, garnet,  mica. 

Metals. 

Mineralized  (ores)  or  Native — Ores  of  tin,  iron,  nickel,  zinc,  lead, 
mercury,  copper,  gold,  silver,  platinum.     Enter  into  no  details  of  Metal- 


LANGUAGE.  89 

lurgy— a  few  simple  facts  in  regard  to  smelting,  fluxes,  etc.,  will  not  he 
out  of  place.  The  economic  uses  of  these  metals  and  the  poisonous  prop- 
erties of  some  of  them  should  receive  very  careful  attention. 

Rocks. 

As  single  Minerals. — Example,  pure  Limestone.  As  compounds — 
granite  or  pudding  stone.  Rocks  as  crystalline  and  non-crystalline ; 
stratified  and  unstratified  ;  aqueous,  igneous,  and  metamorphic. 

Characters  and  uses  of  important  Rocks. — Granite,  syenite  ;  gneiss, 
mica — slate,  talc,  steatite,  trap,  basalt,  lava,  pumice ;  slate  ;  quartz  rock, 
buhr-stone,  sandstones,  conglomerates  ;  limestones,  marbles ;  sand,  and 
clay. 

Such  of  these  rocks  as  are  found  on  Manhattan  Island,  and  in  its  vicin- 
ity, or  as  have  important  uses  in  paving,  flagging,  building,  etc.,  should 
receive  particular  attention. 

Synoptical  Notes  from  Note-Book. 

Water  as  a  mineral.  Solid,  liquid,  gas  Csteam).  Effects  of  heat  and 
of  lo.<s  of  heat.  Properties  as  a  mineral ;  transparent,  tasteless,  odor- 
less. As  a  solvent ;  uses  to  vegetable  life  ;  to  animal  life  ;  to  mankind  ; 
found  in  all  rocks  and  soils  ;  small  underground  streams ;  wells  and 
springs.  Miscellaneous  :  droughts,  floods,  clouds,  rain,  rainbow  ;  bene- 
ficial and  destructive. 

Nifkel. — A  metal,  silver  white,  tenacious,  malleable,  ductile,  mag- 
netic, similar  to  iron,  but  not  easily  rusted  (oxidized),  will  7rfW,  can  be 
plated  upon  other  metals  as  silver  is,  therefore  very  useful.  Generally 
found  in  certain  ores  of  copper,  iron,  and  arsenic.  Principal  supply 
from  New  Caledonia.  Found  also  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  in 
Pennsylvania.  Uses :  German  silver,  an  alloy  of  nickel,  copper,  and 
zinc  ;  nickel  coins,  five  cent  and  three  cent,  are  three-fourths  copper 
and  one-fourth  nickel ;  nickel  cent  only  one-eighth  nickel ;  nickel  plat- 
ing, by  battery  and  otherwise— bright  surface  is  pure  nickel.  (From 
articles  Coin  and  Nickel  in  Appletons'  Amer.  Cycl.).  Objects,  three 
cent,  five  cent,  and  one  cent  nickels  ;  pieces  of  nickel,  plated  wai-e  ; 
German  silver.     Ore. 

Clay. — Qualities:  plastic  (when  moist),  tough,  tenacious — absorbent 
when  dry  -  colors  of — peculiar  smell  and  taste.  Found  in  many  places 
and  in  most  countries.  Many  kinds  according  to  purity.  Formed  from 
granite  and  other  rocks  by  the  pulverizing  action  of  frost  and  water. 
Fine  particles  of  feldspar  and  quartz — settled  down  from  water.  Ordi- 
nary clay  is  brick  clay — red  color  of  bricks  and  flower-pots  from  iron 


90  FOURTH   GRADE. 

rust  in  clay — Milwaukee  bricks  are  straw  colored,  no  iron.  If  lime  is 
in  the  clay  a  brick  easily  melts.  Other  kinds  and  uses.  Fire  clay  for 
fire  bricks  ;  potter^ s  clay  for  common  crockery  ;  fuUer^s  earth  for  dressing 
cloth ;  Kaolin  or  porcelain  clay,  mostly  pure  feldspar.  Clay  contains  the 
rust  or  oxide  oi  an  exceedingly  valuable  and  useful  metal  called  alumin- 
ium, white,  brilliant,  tougher,  and  stronger  than  steel,  but  much 
lighter ;  can  be  welded,  soldered,  and  plated  ;  makes  valuable  alloys. 
3Iiscellaneous. — Most  New  York  bricks  from  Hudson  River  clay  beds. 
Tiles,  earthenware,  stoneware — alum  obtained  from  clay — aluminium 
from  alum — clay  used  in  clarifying  sugar  ;  adobe  houses.  Most  impor- 
tant use — most  valuable  part  of  fertile  soils.  Antiquity,  variety,  and 
importance  of  ceramic  art.  (From  articles  Ckiy  and  Pottery,  Dana's 
Mineralogy,  and  in  Appletons'  Amer.  Cycl.)  Objects — lump  of  clay, 
pieces  of  various  kinds  of  bricks,  tiles,  pottery,  etc. 


GRAMMAE. 

Grammar  is  the  science  of  the  sentence  •  therefore,  the 
fundamental  idea  to  be  imparted  is,  what  constitutes  a  sen- 
tence. This  information  must  be  imparted  bj  means  of 
oral  lessons.  Ideas  involved  in  definitions  should  be  de- 
veloped before  the  pupils  are  required  to  commit  such 
definitions  to  memory. 

Let  a  short  sentence  be  written  on  the  slate  or  black- 
board, and  then  let  the  pupils  be  made  familiar  vt^ith  the 
relations  of  the  words  used  as  subject,  verb  or  predicate, 
and  adjuncts.  The  distinctions  comprehended  in  the  parts 
of  speech  can  all  be  successively  taught  in  this  way,  and  the 
pupil  be  enabled  readily  to  point  them  out  before  he  is  re- 
quired to  say  what  a  noun  or  pronoun,  or  verb,  and  so  forth, 
is.  The  learning  of  the  definitions  will  be  easily  accom^ 
plished  as  he  proceeds.  Thus,  when  the  teacher  presents 
the  sentence,  "  Industrious  pupils  learn  very  rapidly,"  the 
pupil  is  made  to  discover,  first,  the  principal  parts — stdjject 
and  verb,  or  simple  predicate  •  next,  that  industrious  is 


GRAMMAR,  91 

added  to  pupils,  rapidly  to  learn,  and  very  to  rapidly. 
The  pupil  then  knows  that  industrious  being  an  adjunct 
of  a  noun  is  an  adjective;  that  rapidly  being  an  adjunct 
of  a  verb,  is  an  adverb,  and  that  very  being  an  adjunct  of 
an  adverb  is  also  an  adverb.  This  instruction  can  be  sup- 
plemented by  requiring  the  pupils  to  construct  sentences 
of  a  similar  kind  ;  as  sentences  containing  a  simple  subject 
and  predicate — sentences  containing  a  subject  and  adjuncts 
with  a  simple  predicate — sentences  containing  a  subject 
and  predicate,  with  adjuncts  of  both. 

The  sentences  presented  should  at  first  be  carefully 
classified,  so  that  no  difficulties  may  be  presented  which  are 
beyond  the  pupils'  ability  or  actual  attainments  to  solve. 
In  grammar  especially  should  the  instruction  be  systematic 
and  logical. 

The  sentences  required  to  be  studied  in  this  grade  in- 
clude : 

1.  Sentences  with  a  simple  subject  and  a  simple  predi- 
cate ;  2.  Those  with  simple  word  adjuncts  of  either  subject 
or  predicate  or  both  ;  3.  Those  with  simple  phrase  adjuncts 
(so  as  to  teach  the  preposition). 

Of  course,  the  study  of  grammar  as  prescribed  in  this 
grade  does  not  supersede  the  "exercises  for  correction," 
required  in  all  the  grades.  These  exercises,  however,  by 
degrees  lose  their  empirical  character  and  become  scientific. 

Outline. 

Teach  subject,  predicate,  ol^ect,  noun,  verb,  adjective,  advei'b,  pronoun, 
preposition,  and  conjunction  ;  the  distinction  between  transitive  and  in- 
transitive verhs ;  case  and  number  (best  exemplified  in  the  pronoun). 
Make  the  sentence  the  basis  of  instruction.  As  a  simple  preliminary 
step  in  the  important  matter  of  the  arrangement  of  words  in  a  sentence, 
direct  attention  to  the  order  in  which  the  principal  parts  usually  appear ; 
namely,  1,  subject ;  2,  predicate  ;  3,  object.  The  simple  sentence, 
as  a  rule,  does  not  admit  the  comma. 


92  FOURTH   GRADE. 


AKITHMETIC. 

Written  and  Mental. — Suggestions  as  in  preceding 
grades,  and  also  the  following  : 

Mental. — 1.  For  the  purpose  of  review,  brief  examples 
in  fractions,  both  common  and  decimal,  should  be  em- 
ployed, so  as  to  test,  and  more  thoroughly  fix  in  the  pupil's 
mind  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  applications  of 
fractions  as  taught  in  the  preceding  grades.  The  im- 
provement made  by  the  pupils  in  accuracy  and  rapidity, 
as  well  as  in  the  ready  application  of  arithmetical  princi- 
ples to  particular  cases  involving  an  exercise  of  the  judg- 
ment and  reasoning  powers,  should  be  progressive  from 
grade  to  grade,  and  should  be  carefully  tested  in  the 
mental  work. 

2.  The  special  province  of  this  grade  being  Denominate 
N'umbers,  the  exercises,  both  mental  and  written,  should 
deal  largely  with  the  applications  of  fractions  to  that  class 
of  numbers,  including  Federal  money,  and  should,  of 
course,  combine  practice  in  all  the  essential  tables  of 
weight,  measure,  etc. 

3.  The  review  of  the  analyses  previously  taught  should 
be  systematic  and  thorough,  but  should  not  consume  a 
large  part  of  the  time  of  the  pupils. 

Written. — 1.  The  arithmetic  specially  prescribed  in 
this  grade  is  of  a  practical  character,  perhaps  more  geuer- 
all}^  so  than  in  any  of  the  other  grades  of  the  course.  All 
that  precedes  has  been,  to  a  considerable  extent,  a  pre- 
paration for  the  work  of  this  grade,  and  will  be  found 
involved  in  it.  In  view  of  the  great  importance  of  the 
subject,  and  in  order  to  render  the  requirements  as  definite 
as  possible,  the  syllabus  given  below  presents,  first,  certain 


ARITHMETIC.  93 

preliminary  considerations  ;  and,  second,  specific  directions 
as  to  the  extent  of  the  field  comprehended  in  the  grade. 

2,  The  whole  subject  of  conapoiind  denominate  numbers 
is  strictly  utilitarian.  Practical  utility  should,  therefore, 
be  the  controlling  element  in  all  the  exercises  employed. 
The  daily  necessities  of  the  house,  the  shop,  the  market, 
etc.,  indicate  the  general  character  of  the  selections  to  be 
made.  These  will  furnish  at  least  as  good  mental  disci- 
pline in  calculation  and  analysis  as  those  of  a  less  severely 
practical  character. 

3.  The  average  time  which  pupils  in  this  grade  can  yet 
spend  in  school  is  short.  Secure,  therefore,  the  essentials 
first.  lieview  and  test  thoroughly  the  indispensable  basis 
— the  tables.  (See  Grades  8  and  7.)  Train  your  pupils 
to  work  with  reasonable  rapidity.  Carefully  avoid  long 
and  complex  examples.  Avoid  all  things  obsolete  or 
obsolescent.  Keep  a  clear  record  of  the  points  you  have 
covered;  it  will  assist  in  the  reviews  and  in  the  examina- 
tions. Do  not  dwell  so  long  on  Eeduction  as  to  omit 
important  practical  points  in  other  rules.  AVith  the  tables 
commence  Keduction.  See  that  the  tables  are  not  only 
memorized  but  understood  ;  many  of  the  tables  have  al- 
ready been  reviewed  and  applied  to  the  reduction  of  in- 
tegral denominate  numbers  in  the  Fifth  Grade. 

SYLLABUS. 

Fractional  Denominate  Numhers. — Eeject  all  examples  in  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  fractional  denominate  num- 
bers. In  reduction  there  are  but  tico  cases,  and  the  second  of  these  is 
simply  the  converse  of  the  first.  Each  divides  into  two  varieties,  in 
one  of  which  the  fraction  is  common  and  in  the  other  decimal,  but  the 
principle  applied  in  working  is  the  same. 

Be  careful  to  select  only  those  denominate  numbers  in  which  such 
fractional  quantities  are  likely  to  need  consideration,  chiefly  sterling 
monev. 


94  FOURTH   GRADE. 

I  A.   f  f  of  a  bushel  to  pecks,  quarts,  etc. 
B.  .673  of  a  £,  how  many  shillings,  pence,  etc., 
or  dollars  and  cents  ? 

f  A.  7  cu.  ft.  95  cu.  in.,  what  common  fraction  of 
I  a  cubic  yard  ? 

'•  p       q  1    !  B.  15  cwt.  38  lbs.  are  what  decimal  fraction  of  a 

~'   ■  I  ton  V 

I  £8  14s.  9-id.  are  how  many  dollars  and  cents 
L  (at  $4.87)  ? 

Addition  and  Subtraction  of  Denominate  Numbers. — Subtraction  best 
taught  in  connection  with  addition. 

Multiplication  of  Denominate  Numbers. 

Division  of  Denominate  Numbers. — Note  the  distinction  between  the 
different  cases. 

Note. — Suggestions  for  the  application  of  these  four  rules,  and  of 
reduction  of  integral  denominate  numbers,  will  be  found  below,  in 
connection  with  the  "  Weights  and  Measures." 

Weights. — Teach  briefly,  by  examples,  the  relations  of  Avoirdupois 
and  Troy  weights,  the  essential  identity  of  Troy  and  Apothecaries' 
weights.  Let  most  of  the  examples  in  Reduction  be  in  the  first  of  the 
three.     They  should  be  few  and  very  short  in  the  last. 

Remember  that  the  quarter  of  a  hundred  weight  and  the  avoirdupois 
dram  are  seldom  used  now  excepting  in  text-books. 

In  addition  and  subtraction  give  avoirdupois  weight.  Remember  that 
in  things  sold  by  the  ton  the  ounce  is  not  taken  into  account. 

Linear  Measure. — Beduction. — Employ  the  denominations  most  in 
use — inch,  foot,  yard,  rod,  and  mile.  Give  a  few  examples  to  show  the 
use  of  the  chain  and  its  subdivisions. 

Omit  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division. 

Surface  Measure. — {Of  very  great  practical  importance.) — Treat  briefly 
in  reduction.  Be  particular  to  avoid  long  examples.  When  30i  is  used 
as  a  divisor  let  it  be  in  very  short  examples.  Give  examples  in  ad- 
dition and  subtraction.  Give  examples  in  finding  areas  of  rectangular 
figures.  Give  the  feet,  or  the  chains,  in  the  sides  of  rectangles,  to  find 
acres  and  value  ;  acres  and  hundredths  the  most  usual  form.  Simple 
questions,  involving  cost,  may  occasionally  be  given  in  plastering,  pav- 
ing, carpeting,  dress  linings,  etc.,  etc. 

Solid  Measure. — Employ  only  the  inch,  the  foot,  the  yard,  and  the 
cord  ;  use  the  last  but  little.  See  that  pupils  understand  the  mutual 
relations  of  linear,  surface,  and  solid  measures,  and  that  these  measures 
are  not  convertible.  Reduction — a  few  simple  questions.  Omit  addi- 
tion and  subtraction.     Give  examples  in  finding  cubic  inches,  feet,  or 


GEOGPwAPHY.  95 

yards,  in  boxes,  bins,  cellars,  cylindrical  cisterns,  etc.;  also  contents  in 
bushels  and  gallons. 

Dry  and  Liquid  Measures. — Use  no  obsolete  denom'nations.  Omit 
beer  measure.  Remember  that  the  barrel  and  the  hogshead  are  not 
oTten  measures  in  commerce.  Simple  examples  in  reduction,  multipli- 
cation, and  division. 

Circular  Measure. — Treat  briefly  ;  explain  the  terms  and  their  use  ; 
omit  signs.  Reduction — Short  examples  of  two  or  three  terms.  Addi- 
tion and  Subtraction — Questions  in  difference  of  latitude  and  longitude. 
Geographical  and  statute  miles  on  the  meridian,  on  the  equator,  on 
parallels  of  60^. 

Time.  —  (In  part  ver}'  important.)  Treat  reductions  very  briefly.  Do 
not  involve  more  than  two  or  three  denominations  in  one  example.  Ad- 
dition and  subtraction.  Difference  of  dates  by  days,  and  by  years, 
months,  and  days. 

Miscellaneous. — Practical  examples  in  values,  involving  dozen,  gross, 
quire,  ream,  quintal,  barrels  of  flour,  fi.sh,  etc.,  making  out  simple  bills, 
receipts,  etc. 

Money. — Give  but  few  examples  in  each  rule  in  sterling  money.  Re- 
duction of  sterling  to  Federal,  and  vice  versa,  omitting,  of  course,  all 
reference  to  the  percentage  of  exchange. 

Pupils  should  know  something  of  the  money  of  Canada,  identical 
with  our  own  ;  the  value  of  the  franc  and  of  the  German  mark. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

United  States  reviewed. — See  Fif  tli  Grade. 

North  Ainerica  in  Detail. — Follow  general  directions 
for  Fifth  Grade  in  greater  detail. 

Asia  and  Africa. — The  outline  of  these  grand  divisions 
will  include  their  boundaries ;  area  and  population  in 
round  numbers ;  simplest  physical  divisions ;  names  and 
relative  positions  of  their  several  countries ;  brief  state- 
ments of  general  facts  relating  to  the  climates  and  produc- 
tions of  the  countries;  the  names  and  location  of  their 
capitals,  and  of  the  moi-e  important  islands,  mountains, 
seas,  gulfs,  rivers,  lakes,  etc. 

In  Africa,  only  the  Barbary  States,  Egj^t,  and  Cape 
Colony,  should  be  made  at  all  prominent. 


96  FOURTH   GRADE. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Suggestions. — Note  carefully  the  general  suggestions  of 
preceding  grade. 

The  work  of  this  grade  is,  "  Outline  with  Greater  De- 
tail." The  following  Syllabus  of  Topics  is  indicative  of 
the  amount  of  information  the  pupils  may  properly  be  ex- 
pected to  possess  at  the  conclusion  of  this  grade, 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 

1.  Discovei'ies. — Col  iambus,  1492 — first  voyage  only — (refer  in  general 
way  to  his  subsequent  voyages) — The  naming  of  America — Spanish 
claims — The  Cabots — English  claims— Discovery  and  occvipation  of  the 
St.  Lawrence — French  claims. 

2.  Virginia. — Settlement  of  Jamestown,  1607  (omit  unessential  de- 
tails)— Tobacco — Slavery— Refer  briefly  to  Indian  wars,  but  omit  all 
details — Refer  briefly  to  other  colonies  once  wliolly  or  partly  within  the 
limits  of  Virginia. 

B.  New  England. — Puritans  in  England — "  Pilgrims" — Settlement  of 
Plymouth,  1620 — Salem— Boston — Refer  very  briefly  to  other  colonies 
wholly  or  partly  settled  from  these  three — also  to  Indian  wars. 

4.  New  Netherlands.— Henry  Hudson,  1609 — Fort  Orange — Manhat- 
tan— Stuyvesant — English  conquest — Refer  briefly  to  extent  of  New 
Netherlands  and  to  other  colonies  afterward  cut  off. 

5.  New  York.. — Changes  in  name,  1664 — Refer  briefly  to  reconquest 
by  the  Dutch,  and  subsequent  restoration  to  the  English. 

6.  French  and  Indian  War. — 1753 — Causes — a  few  leading  events — 
results — It  trains  and  prepares  the  colonists  to  become  soldiers  of  the 
Revolution. 

7.  Revolution. — 1775 — Chief  causes — Declaration  of  Independence, 
July  4,  1776 — a  few  other  principal  events — results — Refer  briefly  to 
Articles  of  Confederation,  and  to  the  adoption  of  the 

8.  Constitution. — First  President,  1789 — events— Jefferson  and  Louisi- 
ana— its  extent. 

9.  Madison  and  War  of  1812— Its  causes  and  results  (briefly). 

10.  Mexican  War — 1846 — Its  causes  and  results. 

11.  Civil  War — 1861 — Chief  causes  and  general  results  (treat  briefly 
and  carefully  avoid  making  or  allowing  partisan  statements). 

Be  careful  so  to  lay  out  the  work  to  be  done,  that  it  may  readily  be 
completed  before  promotion. 


THIRD  GRADE. 

Outline  Coukse. 

1.  Language  Lessons. — Beading  of  the  grade  of  an  easy  Fifth  Reader 
— at  least  one  lesson  per  week  in  supplementary  reading  :  oral  lessons  on 
the  simple  facts  of  natural  philosophy  :  compositions  as  before  :  spelling, 
meaning,  and  use  of  words,  as  before  :  exercises  in  the  formation  of  de- 
rivative words :  English  grammar  (without  text-book)  continued. 

3.  Arithmetic. —  Written  a.nd  Menial — Through  percentage,  includ- 
ing such  rules  as  do  not  involve  consideration  of  time,  with  their  appli- 
cations. Problems  to  be  chiefly  such  as  involve  the  ordinary  business 
transactions. 

3.  Geography. — South  America  and  Europe  in  detail. 

4.  History  of  the  United  States. — To  the  Revolution. 

5.  Penmanship. — Writing  in  copy-books,  with  practice  in  different 
styles  ;  short  paragraphs  to  be  written  from  dictation  ;  instruction  in 
letter-writing. 

6.  Drawing. — On  paper,  illustrated  on  blackboard,  from  dictation 
and  from  chart. 

Draw  one  historic  vase,  not  less  than  six  inches  high,  without 
perspective  effect,  decorated.  One  original  pottery  form,  without 
perspective  effect,  decorated  with  any  leaf,  flower,  form,  or  historic 
ornament,  used  in  previous  grades.  Two  examples  of  bi-symmetrical 
Ihistoric  ornament  of  different  styles,  greatest  dimension  not  less  than 
six  inches.  Two  original  examples  of  surface  covering,  using  not  less 
than  two  different  units  for  the  repetition.  One  original  circular  bor- 
der.    An  example  of  design  for  textile  fabric. 


INSTRUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


LANGUAGE. 


The  general  instructions  and  suggestions  for 

Reading,  found  on  page  20  ;  those  for 

Spelling,  on  page  29 ;  those  for  the 

Meajstings  and  Uses  of  Words,  on  page  31 ;  and  those 
for 

Composition,  on  page  28,  are  to  be  taken  as  belonging 
to  this  grade  also. 

ORAL  LESSONS. 
Natural  Philosophy. 

1.  As  a  means  of  appropriate  mental  discipline,  no 
other  department  of  the  Oral  Lessons  prescribed  for  the 
several  Grammar  School  grades  is  of  equal  importance 
with  these  lessons  on  simple  facts  of  natural  philosophy. 
It  is  needless  here  to  dwell  upon  the  practical  and  perma- 
nent value  of  a  knowledge  of  these  facts.  It  will  not  be 
inappropriate,  however,  for  the  teacher  to  impi-ess  upon 
the  pupils  the  general  relations  of  this  knowledge  to  the 
marvels  of  modern  progress,  and  to  direct  their  reading  for 
more  extended  information. 

2.  In  the  work  assigned  to  this  and  to  the  next  higher 
grade,  nothing  beyond  a  simple  introduction  to  and^r^a- 
ration  for  scientific  study  is  attempted. 

3.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  vast  field  can  be  covered, 


LANGUAGE.  99 

jet  whatever  is  done,  should  be  done  with  system.  To 
this  end,  a  carefulJj  prepared  note-book — not  ^a?^-book — 
is  indispensable  for  the  teacher.     See  page  25. 

4,  Begin  every  lesson  with  an  experiment,  or,  if  neces- 
sary, with  several  experiments.  The  oixil  work  in  the 
teaching  will  consist  chiefly  in  careful  questioning  upon 
the  phenomena  as  observed  by  the  pnpils.  Tell  when  you 
must ;  but  tell  as  little  as  the  nature  of  the  special  topic, 
and  a  proper  economy  of  time  will  allow. 

5,  It  is  of  especial  importance  that  the  pupils  should 
be  in  every  way  encouraged  to  find  instances  of  the  appli- 
cations of  the  principles  they  have  been  taught :  these 
they  can  themselves  discover  in  the  phenomena  and  inci- 
dents of  their  daily  life,  at  home,  in  the  street,  the  shop, 
and  the  school.  Thus  they  will  be  led  to  form  habits  of 
observation  and  reflection, 

6,  The  teacher  will  find  a  wide  difference  in  the  readi- 
ness with  which  pupils  will  conceive  and  apply  scientific 
principles.  With  a  few,  the  bare  statement  of  a  principle 
will  often  enable  them  to  point  out  its  simpler  applica- 
tions. The  results  of  a  certain  order  of  experiments,  and 
the  simpler  deductions  from  them,  will  be  promptly  an- 
ticipated by  such  minds.  But  it  will  not  be  so  with  all : 
only  after  careful  and  repeated  illustration  will  the  prin- 
ciples which  interpret  the  facts  represented  be  clearly 
apprehended  by  some.  In  all  experiments  the  pupils 
themselves  should  be  made,  as  far  as  possible,  participants. 
In  reviews  they  should  be  called  upon  to  repeat  the  ex- 
periments or  statements  that  have  been  made,  and  to  give 
the  proper  explanation.  They  should  be  encouraged  to  try 
further  experiments  for  themselves  at  home,  and  then  to 
furnish  an  account  or  repetition  of  them  in  the  class-room, 
if  possible.     The  teacher  will  also  particularly  remember 


100  THIRD   GRADE. 

that  it  is  not  necessary  to  follow  slavishly  the  exact  order 
or  selection  of  topics  given  in  the  subjoined  syllabus.  For 
instance,  the  consideration  of  the  mechanical  powers  may 
precede  that  of  the  properties  of  matter,  or  of  the  attrac- 
tive and  repellent  forces. 

7.  When  the  scientific  meaning  of  a  common  term 
differs  greatly  from  the  popular  one,  great  care  should  be 
taken  to  point  out  clearly  such  difference,  in  order  that  the 
pupil  may  not  be  misled  by  thinking  that  he  knows  that 
of  which  he  is  really  ignorant.  Among  the  many  cases  in 
which  this  will  be  found  necessary,  the  terms  j[)orosity, 
porous,  solid,  and  invpe7utrability  may  be  talcen  as  in- 
stances. It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  the  pupil  should 
be  able  to  give  an  exact  and  comprehensive  scientific  deji- 
oiition  of  such  terms ;  a  few  analytical  questions  by  the 
teacher  will  readily  show  whether  the  subject  is  under- 
stood. 

8.  As  far  as  the  subject  will  allow,  the  pupil  should  be 
led  through  the  medium  of  exjperiment  to  a  knowledge  of 
\hQ  facts.  The  facts  once  ascertained,  the  princijjles  un- 
derlying them  may  be  deduced.  A  limit  will,  sooner  or 
later,  be  reached,  where  parts  of  the  subject,  so  far  as  they 
may  be  entered  upon,  must  he  taught  empirically,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  pupil's  limited  knowledge  of  other  depart- 
ments of  science. 

For  instance,  suppose  that  the  teacher  has  already  ex- 
perimentally established  in  his  pupil's  mind  a  general  idea 
of  the  terms/brce  and  gravity,  and  that  he  now  wishes  to 
lead  him  to'  know  that  "  the  weight  of  a  body  is  the  Pleas- 
ure of  ikiQ.  force  of  gravity  "  acting  upon  it,  and  after  that 
to  establish  the  law  of  its  variation.  Let  the  teacher  or 
one  of  the  pupils  borrow  a  common  spring  scale — the 
smaller  and  simpler  the  better ;   let  a  pupil  pull,  and  at 


LANGUAGE.  101 

the  same  time  notice  that  he  is  exerting  deforce  /  that  the 
position  of  the  index  will  vary  with  the  degree  or  amount 
of  force ;  that  the  tnotion  is  in  the  direction  of  the  force, 
however  the  instrument  may  be  held :  now  place  a  succes- 
sion of  heavy  bodies  in  the  scale,  and  let  him  notice  that 
the  effects  are  identical  with  those  produced  by  his  muscu- 
lar force.  He  will  no  longer  vaguely  conceive  that  the 
effect  produced  upon  the  scale  is  because  the  body  is  heavy 
(which  was  to  him  a  vague  term),  but  because  the  earth 
actually  jyi^Z/s  it  as  he  did,  though  no  connecting  bond  is 
visible,  as  when  he  pulled.  A  knitting-needle  suspended 
and  balanced  upon  a  thread,  and  acted  upon  by  a  sim})lc 
magnet,  will  clearly  convince  liim  that  a  force  may  be 
exerted  by  one  body  upon  another  without  actual  contact. 
You  have  clearly  defined  for  him  the  idea  that  "  the 
weight  of  a  body  is  the  measure  of  the  earth's  attraction 
upon  it."  If  now  you  wish  to  teach  the  law  of  the  variation 
of  the  weight  of  a  body  of  invariable  mass,  as  should  indeed 
be  done,  the  next  step  must  be  evijpirical.  The  pupil's  de- 
ficiency in  mathematics  forbids  any  other  course  of  proce- 
dure. The  "  Law  of  Gravitation  "  must  be  stated  to  him, 
together  with  the  reason  for  stating  without  pi-oof .  It  will 
develop  in  many  a  mind  an  earnest  desire  to  supply  that  de- 
ficiency. The  law  of  the  variation  of  weight  may  now  be 
readily  deduced  by  first  adding  to  the  pupil's  mathematical 
knowledge  the  technical  meaning  of  the  term  square,  and 
then  giving  a  variety  of  simple  arithmetical  problems  to 
illustrate  it. 

9.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  graver  or  more  common  error 
in  relation  to  this  subject,  among  earnest  teachers  who  are 
called  upon  to  teach  it,  than  the  notion  that  this  requires 
expensive  or  complicated  apparatus.  The  very  contrary 
is  indeed  the  case  in  the  great  majority  of  instances.     Ex- 


102  THIRD    GRADE. 

pensive  apparatus,  with  its  show  of  brass  and  glass,  has  a 
direct  tendency  to  repress  the  most  precious  element  and 
evidence  of  a  teacher's  success — experimenting  at  home  by 
the  pupils  themselves.  The  principles  of  the  lever  may  be 
just  as  well  developed  by  means  of  a  pen-handle,  a  pointer, 
or  a  window-pole,  as  by  a  polished  brass  or  steel  bar ;  a 
large  spool  makes  an  excellent  wheel  and  axle  j  a  ribbon- 
block,  a  good  single  pulley,  fixed  or  movable ;  a  slate,  a 
book,  or  a  shingle,  an  inclined  plane  ;  a  pocket-knife  will 
soon  furnish  a  good  wedge  from  a  little  piece  of  board, 
while  the  use  of  the  blade  itself  is  an  excellent  illustration 
of  the  application  of  the  principle  ;  and  a  large  screw  or  a 
discarded  auger-bit,  with  a  knitting-needle  or  a  pen-holder 
for  a  lever,  makes  an  efficient  single  screw.  And  so  through 
every  department  of  the  subject.  Nothing  marks  more 
fully  the  ability  of  a  teacher  than  fertility  in  such  resources. 
Strings,  tops,  balls,  and  marbles ;  pop-guns,  potato-mills, 
bean-shooters,  and  putty-blowers,  and  the  thousand  and 
one  nameless  articles  to  be  found  in  pupils'  pockets  fur- 
nish an  exhaustless  mine  of  apparatus,  and  good  apparatus 
too,  for  the  skilful  teacher.  The  immortal  Dalton  wrought 
out  his  atomic  chemical  theory  with  apparatus  which  may 
be  excelled  in  many  a  junk  or  old-bottle  shop,  and  the 
teacher  determined  to  succeed  will  find  that  "  where  there 
J  is  a  will  there  is  a  way." 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 

(To  be  illustrated,  as  far  as  possible,  objectively.) 

Properties  of  Matter. — Body  or  mass,  molecule,  atom  ;  solid,  fluid, 
liquid,  gas  ;  sensible  or  cellular  pores,  as  in  bread  or  sponge ;  physical 
or  intermolecular  pores,  as  in  iron,  water,  air,  etc.;  porosity.  Extension, 
impenetrability,  rarity  and  density,  compressibility  and  expansibility, 
inertia,  mobility,  molecular  attraction  and  repulsion.  Indestructibility 
of  matter  briefly  explained.     Cobesive  force  ;   properties  dependent 


COMPOSITION.  103 

upon  cohesion;  tenacity,  flexibility;  brittleness,  hardness,  ductility, 
malleability.  Properties  dependent  iipon  cohesive  attraction  and  mo- 
lecular repulsion  ;  elasticity  ;  elasticity  of  flexure,  of  compression,  of  ex- 
pansion, of  torsion.  Relations  of  tlie  forms  of  matter,  as  solids,  liquids, 
and  gases,  to  molecular  attraction  and  rei^ulsion.  Adhesive  force  ;  prop- 
erties dependent  upon  it ;  capillary  attraction  and  its  important  uses  in 
organic  and  inorganic  nature.  Divisibility  of  matter :  into  particles  by 
mechanical  force  ;  into  molecules  by  heat,  solution,  etc.  ;  what  forces 
are  overcome  in  each  case,  and  by  what  force. 

Oravity.  — Why  called  universal  gravitation  :  its  simplest  phenom- 
ena ;  why  bodies  fall :  mutual  attraction  of  floating  substances  ;  law  of 
gravitation  ;  weight  a  measure  of  gravity.  Centre  of  gravity  ;  line  of 
direction  ;  plumb-line ;  stable,  unstable,  and  indifferent  equilibrium. 
Motion  :  simple  and  compound  ;  circular  motion  ;  centripetal  and  cen- 
trifugal force. 

Mechanical  Powers. — Lever,  with  simple  problems  in  mental  arith- 
metic ;  pulley,  wheel  and  axle,  inclined  plane,  wedge,  screw. 

Reference  Books. — The  usual  text-books  on  physics  ;  numerous 
articles  in  Appletons'  and  other  cyclopaedias  ;  Faraday  on  Physical 
Forces  ;  Tyndall's  Matter  and  Forces. 


COMPOSITION. 

1.  Letter- writing  is  specially  prescribed  as  an  exercise 
in  the  Third,  Second,  and  First  Grades.  From  the  dating  of 
the  letter  to  the  final  direction  upon  the  envelope,  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  insist,  as  in  all  other  written  exer- 
cises, upon  neatness  and  legibility.  A  habit  of  scribbling 
is  easily  formed  but  is  very  hard  to  break. 

2.  In  these  three  grades  a  special  exercise  preliminary 
to  writing  out  the  composition  should  occasionally  be 
given,  in  which,  a  suitable  subject  being  announced,  the 
pupils  should  be  required  to  write,  without  assistance,  a 
brief  synoptical  outline  of  the  points  and  items  to  be  in- 
cluded in  the  composition,  and  then  to  number  or  arrange 
them  in  some  logical  order,  so  that,  when  expanded  into 
a  composition,  a  proper  consecutiveness  will  be  observed. 


104  THIRD    GRADE. 

The  form  already  advised  for  the  teacher's  note-book  of 
subjects  taught  orally  will  be  found  simple  and  efficient 
for  this  purpose.  Some  such  plan  is  indispensable  to  the 
best  work,  and  to  the  development  of  that  self-help  and 
self-reliance  which  every  element  of  school  training  should 
tend  to  establish  as  a  permanent  habit  of  the  mind. 

FOEMATION  OF  DEEIYATIYE  WORDS. 

The  exercises  prescribed  for  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Grades  naturally  include  those  prescribed  for  the  lower 
grades ;  their  further  extension  to  the  formation  of  deri- 
vative words  being  understood  to  include  wider  and  more 
difficult  groups,  such  as  those  given  below.  The  uses  of 
these  words  in  illustrative  sentences  will,  of  course,  form 
the  best  test  that  the  instruction  given  has  been  practical 
and  efficient.  The  formal  study  of  English  etymology 
from  Latin  and  Greek  roots  is  not  prescribed  for  any 
grade. 

Sense  :  Ifonsense,  sensation,  sensational,  senseless,  sense- 
lessly, sensory,  sensitive,  sensitively,  sensitiveness,  sensible, 
sensibly,  hisensihle,  sensibility,  sensual,  sensually,  sensuous, 
sensuality,  etc. 

Scribe:  Inscribe,  etc.,  describe,  etc.,  circumscribe,  etc., 
prescribe,  etc.,  proscribe,  etc.,  subsc7'ibe,  etc.,  ascribe,  etc. 
ScT'ipt:  Description,  etc.,  scripture,  etc.,  conscript,  etc., 
prescription,  etc. 

GRAMMAR. 

The  sentences,  still  simple,  should  be  of  a  more  difficult 
character  than  in  the  previous  grade. 

The  exercises  in  construction  should  be  made  to  corre- 


GRAMMAR.  1()5 

spond  with  the  character  of  the  grammatical  work  of  the 
grade  ;  and  the  pupils  in  their  compositions  should,  as  far 
as  possible,  exemplify  the  grammatical  instruction  given. 
Sentences  which  occur  in  these  compositions  should  al- 
ways constitute  a  portion  of  the  subject-matter  of  the 
grammar  lesson  for  the  day.  In  the  character  of  the  sen- 
tences selected  for  this  purpose,  the  good  judgment  of  the 
teacher  will  be  displayed. 

Etymological  exercises  should  be  interspersed,  especially 
in  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  as  a  sign  of  the  possessive  case 
— in  the  proper  plural  termination  of  nouns — the  proper 
forms  of  the  pronouns,  etc.  This  is  a  point  of  considerable 
importance. 

The  exercises  for  the  special  purpose  of  accustoming 
the  pupils  to  care  and  criticism  in  the  use  of  language, 
should  be  continued. 

Outline, 

All  the  parts  of  speech  ;  declension  of  nouns  and  pronouns  ;  compari- 
son of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

Introduce  the  attribute.  Teach  all  the  uses  of  the  phrase.  Make 
the  sentence  the  basis  of  instruction.  Omit  gender  of  nouns ;  make 
little  or  no  reference  to  person  of  nouns.  With  the  exception  of  the 
possessive,  the  cases  of  nouns  are  of  little  practical  importance.  The 
case  of  a  pronoun  is  a  matter  of  inflection. 

Refer  to  the  normal  order,  (1)  Subject,  (2)  Predicate,  (3)  Object 
or  Attribute,  By  the  simplest  illustrations  direct  attention  to  the 
changes  in  the  sense  that  changes  in  1  his  order  bring  about.  For  ex- 
ample, "  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  !  "  (Emphatic)  ;  "Is  John  at 
home?"  (Interrogative);  "Go  ye  and  teach"  (Imperative),  etc. 
Teach  the  general  rule  that  qualifying  words  and  phrases  should  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  what  they  qualify.  Examples:  "  I  only 
spoke  a  few  words,"  should  be,  "  I  spoke  only  a  few  words  ;  "  "I  saw 
the  city,  sailing  up  the  river,"  for  "  Sailing  up  the  river,  I  saw  the 
city."  Phrases,  when  they  do  not  closely  follow  the  words  on  which 
they  depend,  are  generally  set  ofif  by  the  comma. 
5* 


106  THIRD   GRADE. 


AKITHMETIC. 

The  teacher  is  enjoined  to  bear  in  mind  that,  in  teaching 
business  arithmetic,  it  is  especially  important  to  insist 
upon  clearness,  neatness,  legibility,  accuracy  in  results, 
and  reasonable  rapidity.  Mental  exercises,  corresponding 
to  the  written,  should  form  a  large  part  of  the  work  of 
this  grade. 

1.  The  commercial  arithmetic  of  this  grade  differs  from 
that  taught  in  the  preceding  grades,  chiefly  in  the  intro- 
duction of  the  various  forms  of  Percentage. 

2.  The  divisions  of  this  subject  should  be  presented 
in  the  following  order :  First,  Sinvple  Percentage,  in 
four  cases — one  fundamental  and  three  derived  ;  second, 
the  applications  of  Simple  Percentage,  technically  known 
as  Profit  and  Loss,  Commission,  Brokerage,  Insurance, 
Taxes,  etc.,  following  the  same  order  and  with  the  same 
analysis  as  in  the  four  cases  of  Simple  Percentage. 

3.  In  treating  this  subject  many  skilful  teachers  prefer 
to  introduce  algebraic  formulae,  in  which  the  initial  letters 
of  the  several  terms  employed  in  Percentage  are  the  ele- 
ments. To  this  course  there  is  no  objection,  provided 
that  the  formulae  be  not  employed  in  the  mental  arithme- 
tic, and  that  they  accompany  the  usual  analysis  and  be 
not  used  as  a  substitute  for  it. 

4.  The  subject  of  arithmetic  being  necessarily  and  to  a 
great  extent  cumulative,  the  teacher  of  the  Third  Grade 
is  especially  advised  to  read  over  the  directions  given  in 
all  the  preceding  grades,  and  in  particular  the  table  on 
page  Y6.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  terms  Base,  Per- 
centage, etc.,  are  employed  in  the  following  Syllabus  of 
Topics,  in   the  usual  technical  sense  of   the   text-books. 


AEITHMETIC.  107 

The  teacher  will  so  use  them  or  not,  as  the  Principal  may 
deem  expedient. 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 

The  term  percentage — Reading  per  cent. 

Examples — Read  the  following  decimal  fractions  as  per  cent.  :  .75, 
.8,  .605,  .003,  .08i,  .00|,  etc. 

Change  common  fractions  to  per  cent.,  and  vice  versa: 

Emmpks-l,  I,  ^%%,  It,  3|,  l-,^,  if,  etc. 

25  per  cent.,  75  per  cent.,  83^  per  cent.,  14?^  per  cent.,  88 1  per  cent., 
325  per  cent.,  137^  per  cent.,  etc. 

Note. — The  common  business  fractions — halves,  thirds,  etc.,  to 
twelfths,  inclusive — should  be  reduced  to  per  cent.,  and  the  pupils  be 
made  thoroughly  familiar  with  them. 

First  Case  {Fundamental). 

To  find  the  percentage  when  the  base  and  rate  are  given. 

See  table,  page  76. — To  find  a  given  fractional  part  of  a  given  num- 
ber. 

Examples — How  much  is  9  per  cent,  of  750  ?  Had  $750  in  the  bank  ; 
drew  out  9  per  cent.  :  how  much  was  it  ? 

Analysis  as  in  the  multiplication  of  decimal  fractions. 

Note. — When  this  form  of  the  case  has  been  taught,  its  modifications 
should  immediately  follow. 

Examples — Had  $750 ;  paid  out  9  per  cent.     How  much  had  I  left  ? 

Had  $750  ;  earned  9  per  cent.  more.     How  much  had  I  then  'i 

Second  Case  {Derived). 

To  find  the  rate  when  the  percentage  and  base  are  given. 

See  table,  page  76. — To  find  what  fraction  one  number  is  of  another 
number. 

Examples — 140  is  what  per  cent,  of  400  ? 

Had  400  sheep  ;  sold  140.     What  per  cent,  did  I  sell  ? 

Analysis  as  in  reducing  a  common  fraction  to  a  decimal  fraction 
whose  denominator  is  hundredths. 

Modifications  of  Case  Second  : 

Examples — I  had  400  sheep ;  I  now  have  540.  What  is  the  per  cent, 
of  increase  ? 


108  THIED   GRADE. 

I  had  400  sheep  ;  I  now  have  only  260.  What  is  the  per  cent,  of  de- 
crease ?  or  what  per  cent,  have  I  left  ? 

Third  Case  {Derived). 

To  find  the  lase  when  the  iiercentage  and  raU  are  given. 

See  table,  page  76. — To  find  the  number  of  which  another  number  is 
a  given  fraction. 

Examples — 140  is  35  per  cent,  of  what  number  ? 

Sold  140  sheep,  which  was  35  per  cent,  of  my  flock.  How  many  had 
I  at  first  ? 

Analysis  as  in  simple  fractions — 140  is  i^JV  of  what  number  ? 

Modifications  of  Case  Third  : 

Examples — Sold  140  sheep,  which  was  35  per  cent,  of  my  flock. 
How  many  had  I  left  ? 

Sold  140  sheep,  and  have  65  per  cent,  of  my  flock  remaining.  How 
many  had  I  at  first  ? 

Fourth  Case  {Derived). 

To  find  the  base  when  the  amount — or  the  difference — and  rate  are 
given. 

To  find  a  number  which  differs  by  a  given  fractional  part  of  itself 
from  a  given  number. 

Examples — What  number  is  by  8  per  cent,  of  itself  more  than  351  ? 
or  351  is  8  per  cent,  more  than  what  number  ? 

My  fiock  of  sheep  increased  8  per  cent.  ;  I  then  had  351.  How  many 
had  I  at  first  ? 

I  lost  8  per  cent,  of  my  sheep,  and  had  299  remaining.  How  many 
had  I  at  first  ? 

^  First,  find  the  per  cent,  represented  by  the  given  number, 

.      ,     .     J       thus :  100  per  cent.  —  8  per  cent  =  92  per  cent. 

J  Second,  proceed  as  in  Third  Case  :   299  is   i^o^j  of  what 
(_      number  ? 

As  a  part  of  the  general  review,  give  an  example  in  the  fundamental 
case,  and  let  the  pupils  derive  the  other  three  cases  from  it. 

Commission  and  Brokerage,  and  Profit  and  Loss  are  but  applications 
of  Simple  Percentage.  Each  presents  itself  under  all  the  four  cases, 
but  requires  no  special  additional  teaching,  except  in  regard  to  the 
technical  terms  employed. 


GEOGRAPHY.  1(9 


GEOGRAPHY. 

South  America  m  detail. — The  continent,  as  a  whole  ; 
its  boundaries ;  the  names  and  boundaries  of  its  political 
divisions ;  a  few  of  the  chief  capes  and  islands ;  the  posi- 
tion and  direction  of  the  great  plateaux  and  mountain 
ranges  ;  five  or  six  of  the  most  famous  volcanoes.  In  the 
drainage,  only  two  or  three  lakes,  the  courses  of  the  Ori- 
noco, the  Amazon,  the  San  Francisco,  and  the  Parana 
described  ;  their  great  branches  named  and  pointed  out  as 
systems,  but  not  described. 

The  local  geography  of  the  countries  taken  separately 
will  include  a  review  of  the  matter  previously  considered 
in  the  study  of  the  continent — that  is,  the  boundaries,  the 
positions  of  the  mountains  and  plateaux,  the  principal 
rivers,  etc.,  together  with  the  capitals  of  the  several  coun- 
tries, and  about  thirty  other  principal  seaports  and  interior 
cities  of  the  continent. 

Teach  the  descriptive  geography  of  the  continent  as  a 
whole.  That  of  the  several  countries  may  thence  be  very 
easily  deduced.  It  should  include  the  surface  of  the 
country,  as  mountain,  plateau,  or  plain  ;  the  zones  ;  the 
climate  as  modified  by  latitude,  elevation,  and  the  preva- 
lent winds ;  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  great  plains 
and  plateaux  ;  a  brief  notice  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes ; 
principal  plants  and  animals ;  the  three  races,  their  dis- 
tribution and  principal  occupations;  the  European  lan- 
guages ;  the  chief  productions  and  exports ;  and  the  forms 
of  government. 

Europe  in  detail. — The  general  plan  to  be  pursued  has 
been  sufficiently  indicated  in  the  suggestions  made  with 
reference  to  other  grand  divisions.     The  greater  our  in- 


110  THIRD   GRADE. 

tercourse  with  any  country,  the  greater  is  the  necessity  for 
our  study  of  its  geography  in  more  minute  detail. 

Our  intimate  relations  with  the  various  countries  and 
peoples  of  Europe,  in  race,  language,  religion,  literature, 
and  commerce,  and  the  prominence  of  its  affairs  in  the 
newspapers  read  by  every  class  of  the  community,  give 
great  importance  to  the  careful  and  intelligent  teaching  of 
its  geography. 

When  classes  are  studying  or  reviewing  the  geography 
of  the  several  countries  of  this  continent,  these  various  re- 
lations should  receive  brief  but  definite  attention  ;  and, 
when  considering  the  prominent  industries  and  exports  of 
each,  our  imports  from  that  country  and  exports  to  it 
should  be  briefly  noticed. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Suggestions. — The  teacher  is  particularly  referred  to 
the  General  Suggestions  on  United  States  History  in  the 
preceding  grades. 

The  work  of  the  Third  Grade  is  comprised  in  the  fol- 
lowing : 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 

Voyage  of  Columbus — the  naming  of  America — the  occupation  by  the 
Spaniards  of  the  West  India  Islands  and  all  the  neighboring  portions  of 
the  continent — their  enslavement  of  tlie  Indians  and  its  results  (the 
last  very  briefly). 

The  discovery,  exploration,  and  occupation  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Nova  Scotia  by  the  French. 

Virginia. — The  settlement  of  Jamestown  and  the  events  directly  lead- 
ing to  it.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco — the  introduction  of  slavery — the 
navigation  acts  and  Bacon's  rebellion. 

Maryland. — The  Calverts — religious  freedom — Clayborne. 


HISTOKY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  Ill 

New  England. — The  Plymoutli  Company  and  the  settlements  nnder 
their  patent.  The  Puritans — their  previous  history — why  called  Pil- 
grims. Settlement  of  Plymouth ^of  Boston — of  Dover — Massachusetts 
Bay  Colony.  Settlement  of  Connecticut — of  Rhode  Island — provisions 
for  religious  freedom.  The  Union — Indian  Wars  (read)  -Andros— King 
William's  War,  its  causes  and  results — Salem  witchcraft  (read) — Queen 
Anne's  War,  its  causes  and  results — King  George's  War,  its  causes  and 
results. 

Neio  Netherlands. — Hudson — settlement  on  the  Delaware — at  Fort 
Orange — at  Manhattan  Island — tlie  Dutch  Governors — Kieft's  conduct 
— Stuyvesant — existing  evidences  of  the  Dutch  occupation. 

New  York. — Changes  of  name — reconquest  by  the  Dutch  and  restor- 
ation to  England.  Andros — the  extent  of  his  rule.  Dongan — Leisler — 
Schenectady — the  Negro  plot — existing  evidences  of  English  rule. 

New  Jersey. — Its  name — its  division — union  with  New  York — separ- 
ation. 

Delaware. — Settlement  by  Swedes — conquest  by  Stuyvesant. 

Pennsylvania. — William  Penn — his  grant — his  objects.  Settlement 
of  Philadelphia — relations  to  Delaware. 

North  Carolina. — The  grant  of  Charles  II. — its  limits — John  Locke. 

South  Carolina. — Charleston  settled — Carolina  divided  into  two  sep- 
arate governments. 

Georgia. — Savannah  settled — character  of  Oglethorpe. 

General  condition  of  the  English  colonics  in  1752.  Their  population 
— their  national  derivation — their  industries,  social  condition,  planters, 
patroons,  proprietors — the  causes  which  were  developing  a  love  of  lib- 
erty. 

Review  chronologically  under  the  heads  of  sovereigns  of  England — 
Elizabeth — James  I. — Charles  I. — Cromwell — Charles  II. — James  II. — 
William  and  Mary — Anne — George  I. — George  II. 

Review  biographicaJly — Columbus,  Bacon,  Williams,  Penn,  etc. 

The  French  and  Indian  War. — This  should  be  taught  in  outline,  tlie 
principal  points  being:  The  gradual  extension  of  the  English  and 
French  settlements,  leading  to  conflicting  claims — the  explorations  and 
posts  of  the  French  in  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi,  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  the  Lakes — Marquette  and  La  Salle— the  debatable  land  on  the 
upper  Ohio — relatively  small  population  of  Canada — the  building  of  Fort 
du  Quesne,  1754 — Colonial  Congress  at  Albany,  1754 — Braddock's  and 
Johnson's  expeditions,  and  their  results,  1755 — Monckton's  exjiedition, 
1755 — cruel  expulsion  of  the  Acadians— capture  of  Oswego,  1756 — Fort 
William  Henry,  1757 — siege  and  capture  of  Louisburg,  1758 — repulse 


112  THIRD   GRADE. 

at  Ticonderoga,  1758 — concentration  of  French  forces  at  Quebec,  by- 
abandoning  nearly  all  other  posts— battle  of  Quebec,  1759,  and  results 
— Treaty  of  Paris,  1763 — its  conditions. 

In  teaching  the  French  and  Indian  War,  let  the  ten  dates  marked  be 
studied  by  the  years  only.  Bead,  but  do  not  memorize,  the  details  of 
military  movements  and  events — fix  the  sequence  of  events — use  tlie 
map. 

In  the  review,  let  the  pupil  tell  very  briefly  of  Washington,  Brad- 
dock,  Johnson,  Monckton,  Amherst,  Abercrombie,  Howe,  Wolfe, 
Dieskau,  and  Montcalm. 


SECOND  GRADE. 

Outline  Cotjrse. 

1.  Language  Lessons. — Reading  oi  the  grade  of  a  Fifth  Reader- 
supplementary  reading  continued  :  oral  lessons  on  the  simple  facts  re- 
lating to  air,  water,  light,  heat,  and  sound  :  compositions  as  before  : 
spelling,  meaning,  and  use  of  words,  as  before  :  exercises  in  the  forma- 
tion of  derivative  words,  continued  :  English  grammar — the  construction 
of  compound  and  complex  sentences,  with  the  view  of  teaching  pro- 
priety of  expression. 

2.  Arithmetic — written  and  mental. — Interest,  simple  and  com- 
pound, including  partial  payments  ;  discount,  bank  and  true ;  propor- 
tion, simple  and  compound. 

3.  Geography. — The  review  of  Europe;  Asia,  Africa,  and  Oceanica 
in  detail. 

4.  History  of  the  United  States. — Completed. 

5.  Penmanship. — Writing  in  copy-books;  also  of  paragraphs  and 
business  forms,  such  as  bills,  receipts,  and  drafts  ;  letter-writing  con- 
tinued. 

6.  Drawing. — On  paper,  illustrated  on  blackboard,  from  dictation 
and  from  chart. 

Draw  one  natural  lobed  leaf  and  flower — conventionalize  them  and 
with  them  draw  two  designs  for  industrial  purposes.  Draw  from  the 
model  or  round  the  following :  cube,  square  prism,  cone,  cylinder,  and 
square  pyramid.  Draw  {free  hand)  concentric  squares,  hexagon,  octa- 
gon, circle,  concentric  circles,  ellipse,  oval. 

Perspective  Drawing  {permissible). — Draw  in  linear  perspective, 
from  drawings  made  on  hlackboard  only,  the  following :  picture  plane, 
horizon,  points  of  sight,  points  of  distance,  points  at  different  distances 
within  the  picture  plane ;  horizontal  and  vertical  lines  of  different 
lengths  and  distances,  within  the  picture  plane  ;  vertical  and  horizontal 
squares,  cubes,  square  prism,  and  square  pyramid  in  parallel  perspec- 
tive ;  in  angular  perspective,  horizontal  cubes  and  square  pyramids. 


OSTKUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


la:nguage. 


The  general  instructions  and  suggestions  for  Reading 
found  on  page  20 ;  those  for 

Spelling  on  page  29  ;  those  for  the 

Meaning  and  Use  of  Words  on  page  31 ;  those  for  the 

Formation  of  Derivative  Words  on  page  104;  and 
those  for 

CoMPosrrioN  on  page  28,  are  to  be  taken  as  belonging  to 
this  grade  also. 

ORAL  LESSONS. 
Water,  Air,  etc. 
For  general  suggestions,  see  page  98. 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 
(To  be  illustrated,  as  far  as  possible,  objectively.) 

Water. — Mobility  of  liquids — its  cause  ;  their  small  compressibility ; 
pressure  in  every  direction ;  gravity  the  primary  cause ;  how  down- 
ward pressure  is  converted  into  side  and  upward  pressures.  Equality 
of  pressure  at  a  given  point ;  variation  with  the  depth  ;  the  term  level; 
why  water  has  a  level  surface  ;  why  the  hydrant  water  flows  from  the 
open  tap  ;  at  what  height  it  ceases  to  flow,  and  why  ;  other  illustra- 
tions of  the  same  principle  ;  what  that  principle  is  ;  the  hydrostatic 
paradox  ;  the  hydraulic  press  ;  specific  gravity  ;  floating  bodies  ;  why 
iron  ships  float ;  the  quantity  of  water  displaced  by  any  floating  body. 

Air. — Its  mobility,  compressibility,  expansibility,  and  elasticity ; 
chief  mechanical  difference  from  liquids  ;  its  weight ;  its  pressure  in 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY.  115 

all  directions ;  how  shown  ;  the  common  lift-pump  ;  the  mercurial 
barometer ;  its  construction  ;  principle  and  uses  ;  Torricelli's  experi- 
ment ;  Pascal's  experiment ;  the  aneroid  barometer  ;  height  of  atmos- 
phere and  gradual  diminution  of  its  density. 

Sound. — Preliminary.  A  general  idea  of  the  transmission  of  vibra- 
tions, illustrated.  The  nature  of  sound,  its  objective  and  subjective 
elements.  Sonorous  bodies  highly  elastic.  A  medium  necessary.  The 
air  as  a  medium.  Other  media.  Limits  of  audibility  of  vibrations. 
Velocity  in  air  and  other  media.  Loudness  does  not  alter  the  velocity. 
Reflection  of  sound.  Echo,  its  causes  and  limits.  Physical  distinction 
between  mere  noise  and  a  musical  sound.  Pitch  in  music.  Influence 
of  sound-boards.  Tuning-forks,  speaking-trumpets,  speaking-tubes. 
Resonance — murmur  of  shell.  The  ear,  its  construction  and  action — 
the  wonderful  physical  condition  of  the  tympanum  when  listening  to  a 
full  orchestra.  Trace  the  successive  transmissions  of  vibrations  from 
a  street  organ  to  the  brain,  through  closed  windows. 

Note. — Many  important  experimental  illustrations  may  be  given  by 
the  aid  of  a  simple  tuning-fork. 

Heat. — Known  only  by  its  effects.  Effect  on  the  nerves — effect  upon 
the  constitution  of  bodies.  Transmission  of  heat — three  ways  illus- 
trated— air  a  bad  conductor  and  worse  radiator — important  relation  of 
this  to  clothing,  to  vegetation,  etc.  Heat  as  a  sensation — relation  pf 
terms  hot  and  cold.  Sources  of  heat — quantity  and  effects  of  solar 
heat — its  relations  to  physical  geography.  Source  of  the  heat  devel- 
oped by  friction — motion  of  mass  converted  into  molecular  motion. 
Heat  only  a  mode  of  vibratory  motion.  Force  as  indestructible  as  mat- 
ter. Source  of  heat  in  combustion.  The  common  thermometer — 
principles  employed  in  its  construction — zero,  what  it  is  and  how  ob- 
tained. Evaporation — its  causes — effects  on  temperature  of  bodies. 
Phenomena  of  boiling — temperature  of  boiling  water— why  invariable 
at  a  given  elevation — economic  applications — why  the  boiling-point 
varies  with  elevation — boiling  in  a  closed  vessel.  The  steam-engine — 
its  essential  elements  and  general  principles — high-pressure  and  low- 
pressure  engines. 

Light. — Moves  in  straight  lines.  Shadows.  Sources  of  light.  Vi- 
bratory nature  of  light  (only  refer  to  it).  Velocity  of  light — how 
known.  Law  of  intensity  illustrated.  Photometry  by  shadows.  Non- 
luminous  bodies — how  seen.  Reflection — its  law — mirrors,  and  their 
uses  (treat  more  fully  of  the  plane  mirror  than  of  the  others).  Refrac- 
tion— its  simplest  phenomena — its  law.  Lenses — uses  of,  especially  the 
convex  lens.     Color — the  prism  and  the  solar  spectrum — the  order  of 


116  SECOND   GRADE. 

the  colors,  and  their  dependence  upon  wave-length  (refer  very  briefly  to 
thermic  and  actinic  rays).  Phenomena  of  the  rainbow — the  colors  of 
objects — primary  colors.     The  eye  and  vision. 

Reference  Books. — The  ordinary  manuals  on  Natural  Philosophy  ;  arti- 
cles in  Appletons'  and  other  cyclopaedias  ;  'I'yndall's  Forms  of  Water  ; 
Tyndall's  Heat  as  a  Mode  of  Motion  ;  Tyudall  on  Sound  ;  Tyndall 
on  Light ;  Youman's  Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces ;  Rood's 
Modern  Chromatics ;  Le  Conte  on  Light ;  Lommel  on  the  Nature  of 
Light ;  Cooke's  New  Chemistry  (introductory  chapters) ;  Buckley's 
Fairy  Land  of  Science  (articles,  The  Aerial  Ocean  in  which  we  Live, 
The  Voices  of  Nature). 


GEAMMAK. 

In  this  grade  the  pupil  should  learn  the  construction 
and  use  of  complex  and  compound  sentences.  The  gen- 
eral structure  of  such  sentences,  and  the  relation  of  their 
clauses  and  members  should  be  clearly  seen  by  the  pupil. 
Such  insight  is  essential  to  a  correct  and  definite  under- 
standing of  the  meaning  of  what  we  read  and  hear,  as  well 
as  to  facility  and  variety  of  expression.  All  subtle  and 
practically  useless  distinctions  must  be  avoided.  What 
follows  will  illustrate  the  requirements  and  instruction  in 
this  grade : 

"  Pay  the  debts  which  thou  owest ;  for  he  who  gave 
thee  credit  relied  upon  thy  honor,  and  to  withhold  from 
him  his  due  is  both  mean  and  unjust." 

This  sentence  consists  of  two  members :  (1)  "  Pay  the 
debts,"  etc.,  to  "  owest ; "  (2)  "  He  who  gave  thee,"  etc., 
to  "  unjust."     These  members  are  connected  by  "  for." 

The  first  member  contains  the  clause  "  which  thou 
owest,"  used  as  an  adjunct  of  "  debts." 

The  second  member  consists  of  two  clauses :  "  He  who 
gave  thee,"  etc.,  to  "  honor,"  and  "  To  withhold,"  etc.,  to 
"  unjust." 


GRAMMAR — ARITHMETIC.  117 

The  structure  of  the  sentences  constructed  by  the  pupil 
sliould  be  made  the  subject  of  criticism,  with  reference  to 
their  clearness  in  expressing  the  meaning  intended  to  be 
conveyed — their  j)roj)'riety,  unity,  etc.  The  thouglit  itself 
may  be,  to  some  extent,  subjected  to  critical  remark. 

Exercises  in  the  correction  of  false  syntax  should  be 
abundantly  used  in  this  grade.  The  construction  of  sen- 
tences should  assume  the  character  of  extended  compo- 
sition, the  themes  being  selected  by  the  pupils  them- 
selves, or  assigned  by  the  teacher.  Of  course,  care  should 
be  taken  that  the  themes  are  of  a  simple  character,  ap- 
propriate to  the  youthful  mind,  and  calculated  to  awaken 
thought,  not  to  repress  it,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  when 
subjects  of  an  abstract  or  comprehensive  character  are 
chosen  for  the  exercise. 

Outline. 

Compound  and  complex  sentences  ;  mood  and  tense  ;  declension  and 
comparison  reviewed  ;  exercises  in  changing  simple  sentences  to  com- 
plex, complex  to  simple,  etc.  Teach  the  general  rule,  that  qualifying 
clauses  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  what  they  qualify  :  for 
example,  "The  book  that  belongs  to  me  is  lying  upon  the  table,"  not 
"  The  book  is  lying  upon  the  table  that  belongs  to  me."  Show  that  each 
sentence  should  have  only  one  principal  subject  of  thought.  Sliow  that 
the  agreement  of  the  verb  with  its  subject  is  true  only  so  far  as  the 
verb  has  inflection  :  that  in  the  imperative  mood,  for  instance,  the  rule 
of  agreement  in  person  and  number  does  not  apply.  The  clauses 
of  compound  and  of  complex  sentences  are  generally  separated  by  a 
comma. 

ARITHMETIC. 

1.  In  this  grade,  the  teaching  consists  in  large  part  of  a 
review  of  what  has  gone  before,  with  exercises  sufficient 
in  number  and  difficulty  to  familiarize  the  pupils  with  the 
principles,  and  render  them  expert  and  accurate  in  their 


118  SECOND  GRADE. 

application.     For  suggestions  in  regard  to  this  part  of  the 
work,  the  teacher  is  referred  to  the  preceding  grades. 

2.  The  advanced  work  comprises  the  following:  In- 
terest— Simple  and  Convpound — including  Partial  Pay- 
ments^ Bank  Discount  and  True  Discount ;  Simple  and 
Compound  Proportion.  The  exercises  employed  to  teach 
these  departments  of  arithmetic  should  be  of  as  practi- 
cal a  character  as  possible ;  and  all  the  processes  should 
be  specially  analyzed,  the  rules  given  being  in  all  cases 
deduced  from  this  analysis.  A  knowledge  of  the  husi- 
ness  transactions  involved  and  of  the  terms  employed  in 
any  of  the  rules  or  their  applications,  should  always  be 
imparted  to  the  pupils  before  they  are  required  to  solve 
the  problems.  Failure  more  frequently  arises  from  a  want 
of  this  knowledge  than  from  a  deficiency  in  arithmetical 
attainment. 

3.  The  following  syllabus  contains  a  brief  summary  of 
what  is  suggested  to  be  taught  in  this  grade : 

Interest. — Teach  the  definitions  of  the  terms — the  distinction  of 
simple  from  compound  interest — the  legal  rate  of  United  States  and  of 
the  State  of  New  York. 

In  classes  of  an  average  character,  one  good  method  will  be  found 
to  give  better  results  than  two  or  more.  Whatever  method  be  em- 
ployed, the  pupils  should,  from  the  first,  be  carefully  guarded  against 
considering  and  calling  the  multiplier  a  concrete  number. 

If  the  six  per  cent,  method  be  employed,  it  should  be  carefully 
analyzed,  and  the  pupil  should  not  be  allowed  to  sacrifice  sense  to  con- 
ciseness by  such  statements  as  "  the  half  of  7  months  is  3  cents  and  a 
half" — "  one-sixth  of  24  days  is  3  mills,"  etc.  As  a  preliminary  to  ap- 
plying this  method,  the  class  should  have  a  thorough  training  on  such 
questions  as  the  following  :  In  2  years,  3  months,  and  20  days,  at  6  per 
cent,  per  annum,  wJuit  decimal  fraction  of  tlie  principal  is  equal  to  the 
interest  ?     At  7  per  cent.  ?  at  5  ?  at  8  ?  at  7  J  ?  etc. 

Note. — In  finding  interest,  at  any  given  rate,  by  the  six  per  cent, 
method,  the  interest  on  the  pi-indpal  should  first  be  found  at  six  per 


GEOGliAPIIY.  119 

cent.,  and  afterward  increased  or  decreased,  as  may  be  required  ;  by  so 
doing,  diflBcult  fractional  multipliers  will  be  avoided. 

Give  examples  involving  the  various  forms  of  tlie  difference  of  dates. 
Example  :  Find  the  interest  of  $340  from  January  5tb  to  July  2d,  at  6 
per  cent. 

Examples  involving  the  method,  when  the  year  is  estimated  to  con- 
sist of  365  days,  should  also  be  given.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  business  methods. 

Example. — Find  the  exact  interest  of  $340  from  December  1,  1883, 
to  January  27,  1884,  at  4^  per  cent. 

Give  examples  in  Bank  Discount ;  also  in  True  Discount,  distinguish- 
ing carefully  its  differences  in  principle  and  method  from  hank  and 
from  commercial  discount. 

Note. — (On  the  derived  cases  of  simple  interest.) — In  teaching  the 
four  derived  cases  of  simple  interest,  begin  with  an  easy  example  in  the 
fundamental  case,  and  from  that  derive  the  others  in  their  order,  being 
particularly  careful  to  teach  that,  being  derived,  they  all  require 
division  ;  that,  to  find  the  rate,  the  given  interest  is  to  be  divided  by 
the  interest  at  1  per  cent. ;  to  find  the  tinu,  by  the  interest  for  1  year  ; 
to  find  the  principal,  by  the  interest  of  a  principal  of  $1  ;  and  that,  in 
the  fifth  case,  the  given  amount  is  to  be  divided  by  the  amount  of  %\. 

Partial  Payments  and  Compotind Interest  shonldi  be  very  briefly  treated, 
and  with  very  simple  examples. 

The  form  and  nature  of  a  promissory  note,  and  the  meaning  of  the 
several  terms  applicable  to  it,  and  the  forms  of  bills  and  receipts,  are 
included  in  the  work  qf  this  grade. 

PuopoRTiON. — Ratio  ;  proportion  defined  ;  relation  of  antecedents 
and  consequents  ;  ratio  of  4  to  12,  4  :  12,  =  iV;  method  of  finding  the 
missing  term ;  simple  and  compound  proportion  distinguished  ;  prob- 
lems involving  each  (these  problems  should  be  only  such  as  are  re- 
quired to  illustrate  the  principle,  since  they  are  ordinarily  to  be  solved 
by  analysis  previously  given). 


GEOGKAPHY. 

Europe  reviewed. — See  Third  Grade. 
Asia,  Africa.,  and  Oceanica  in  detail. — For  the  plan  to 
be  pursued,  see  preceding  grades. 

Complete  the  local  and  descriptive  geography  uf  one 


120  SECOND   GRADE. 

continent,   or  grand  division,  before  beginning   that   of 
another. 

As  in  the  preceding  grades,  it  is  of  great  importance 
that  the  entire  field  covered  by  the  grade  be  completed  and 
reviewed  before  the  promotion  of  the  class  to  the  next 
grade. 

HISTOEY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 
For  general  suggestions,  see  preceding  grades. 

SYLLABUS. 

Review,  and  teach  as  follows  : 

The  Outlines  of  the  Revolutionary  War. — (Teach  as  in  the  French  and 
Indian  War.) 

Causes  of  the  Revolution. — Navigation  Acts — restriction  of  colonial 
manufactures — effects  of  war  on  the  national  debt  of  England — taxa- 
tion without  representation — the  Stamp  Act,  1765 — its  nature — causes 
which  led  to  its  repeal — the  Tea  Tax — riot  in  Boston,  1770 — the  Boston 
•'  Tea  Party  " — its  immediate  causes,  and  its  consequences — Nature  of 
the  Port  Bill,  1774 — first  Congress  at  Philadelphia,  its  measures — Lex- 
ington, April  19,  1775 — its  effects  upon  the  country — Bunker  Hill — 
siege  of  Boston — Washington  appointed  Commander-in-Chief — evacua- 
tion of  Boston,  and  subsequent  general  drift  of  military  events  to- 
ward the  West  and  South — Declaration  of  Independence,  July  4,  1776 
— battle  of  Long  Island — its  purposes  and  results — retreat  to  the  Dela- 
ware—capture of  the  Hessians  at  Trenton — Princeton — La  Fayette — 
British  move  on  Philadelphia,  1777 — Chad's  Ford — its  consequences — 
Burgoyne's  invasion,  its  route  and  purpose,  1777 — Schuyler — Bur- 
goyne's  disasters — Gates — the  two  battles  of  Stillwater — Clinton's 
movements  —  Burgoyne's  Surrender .^  October,  1777  —  its  far-reaching 
consequences — the  French  alliance  and  assistance — British  retreat 
from  Philadelphia— battle  of  Monmouth,  1778 — New  York  the  base  of 
the  British — destruction  along  the  coasts  of  Connecticut  and  Virginia 
— Wyoming — battle  of  the  Chemung,  1779 — it  breaks  forever  the 
power  of  the  Iroquois — Paul  Jones — Charleston  captured,  1780 — Large 
numbers  of  Tories  in  the  South — consequent  years  of  guerilla  warfare 
— Sumter — Marion — Gates  at  Camden — destruction  of  his  army,  and 
of  Sumter's  force — Arnold's  treason — the  mutiny  at  Morristown,  1781 — 


HISTORY    OF   THE    UXITED    STATES.  121 

its  causes — condition  of  the  Army — Robert  Morris — Arnold's  ravages — 
Greene's  retreat — battles  in  Carolina  aud  their  consequences— Corn- 
wallis  at  Yorktown— combination  of  the  French  and  American  forces — 
Surrender  of  CormcalUs,  October,  1781 — its  effects  in  America  aud 
England — Treaty  of  Paris,  1783 — its  terms — condition  of  the  country. 

Articles  of  Confederation,  177o,  1777,  1781 — the  Government  before 
1781 — after  1781 — Shays'  rebellion,  1780 — lead*  to  a  convention  to  re- 
vise the  Articles^a  new  Constilution  devised  instead,  1787 — adopted 
by  the  States — goes  into  operation,  1789 — ordinance  of  1787. 

1789-1797 —  Washington' s  Adininistration. — Domestic  History. — Cabi- 
net— leading  measures — States  admitted — their  former  relations. 

1797-180 1 — Adams'  Administration . — Foreign  relations.  — Continued 
troubles  with  France.  Domestic  History. — Unpopular  measures — the 
death  of  Washiugtoa — removal  of  the  Capital. 

1801-1809 — Jefferson's  Administration.  — Domestic  History. — Admis- 
sion of  Ohio— its  previous  relations.  The  Louisiana  purchase,  its  im- 
mediate and  subsequent  importance.  Hamilton  and  Burr,  1804 — a 
sketch  of  the  history  of  each.  Fulton's  first  steamboat,  1807.  Foreign 
relations. — Tripolitan  war,  1801-1805,  its  causes  aud  results.  {Read 
the  detail,  if  given.) 

The  state  of  Europe,  and  the  importance  of  our  carrying  trade.  Ex- 
traordinary measures  of  France  and  England  in  relation  to  the  rights 
of  neutrals.  English  claims  of  right  of  search  and  impressment — bear- 
ing of  the  impressment  claim  upon  our  naturalized  citizens,  and  our 
national  honor.  ''Once  a  subject,  always  a  subject."  Affair  of  the 
Leopard  and  Chesapeake,  1807.  Orders  in  Council  and  tlie  Milan  De- 
cree, 1807.     Embargo,  1807-1809.     Non-iutercourse  Act,  1809. 

1809-1817 — Madison's  Administration. — The  entire  interest  centres 
in  the  Foreign  relations — they  control  the  Domestic  history.  Berlin  De- 
cree abolished,  1810.     (Bead  the  affair  cf  the  Little  Belt — Indian  war.) 

War  declared  June  19,  1813 — its  two  chief  causes. 

Note. — Bead  the  detail  of  the  military  and  naval  operations  ;  show 
briefly  in  outline,  first,  the  aggressive  expeditious  into  Canada,  from 
Detroit  to  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  their  general  failure  ;  second  the  small- 
ness  of  the  navy— its  brilliant  success,  but  little  direct  influence  on  the 
fortunes  of  the  war,  excepting  on  the  Lakes — utter  destruction  of 
American  commerce  ;  third,  the  aggressive  expeditions  of  the  British, 
the  Americans  being  chiefly  on  the  defensive  after  1812.  Indian  war 
in  the  West  and  Southwest.  Invasions  from  Canada.  Blockade  of  all 
important  ports.  Naval  and  militarj'  expedition  against  Washington 
and  Baltimore.     Invasion  by  the  way  of  Lake  Chtimpl.iin.     Expedition 


122  SECOND   GRADE. 

against  New  Orleans,  and  its  purposes — final  repulse  of  all  these  at- 
tempts, and  similar  fate  of  renewed  aggressions  of  the  Americans 
against  Canada.     Destruction  of  the  Indian  power. 

Give  the  sequence  of  leading  events,  omitting  the  dates,  excepting 
as  to  years. 

The  Hartford  Convention — its  alleged  purposes— its  effects.  Treaty 
of  Peace,  December,  1814.  A  part  of  the  general  pacification  of 
Europe  upon  the  fall  of  Napoleon.  The  causes  of  the  war  not  even 
alluded  to  in  the  treaty.  Have  these  questions  ever  been  settled  ?  If 
so,  when  and  how? 

Note. — Read  the  second  Barbary  war,  1813-1815 — its  causes  and 
results. 

181 7-1 825— Monroe's  Administration,  — Domestic  History.  — Missouri 
Compromise,  1830 — formation  of  new  parties  on  questions  of  com- 
merce and  finance.  Whigs  and  Democrats.  The  leading  que-tiona 
until  1845.  Foreign  relations. ^ — Purchase  of  Florida.  The  Monroe 
Doctrine,  1823,  its  origin  and  importance. 

1825-1829— Jtf/i/i  Quincy  Adams'  Administration. — Tariff  of  1838, 
and  its  consequences. 

1 839-1837 — Jackson's  Administration. — Domestic  History. — United 
States  Bank.     Nullification,  1832.     Clay's  Compromise. 

1837-1841 — Van  Buren's  Administration. — Panic  of  1837.  Sub- 
Treasury  Bill,  1840-     Political  revolution. 

1841-1845 — Harrison  and  Tz/ler's  Administration. — Domestic  History. 
— Bankrupt  Law.  Dorr's  Rebellion.  Foreign  relations. — The  Maine 
boundary.     Annexation  of  Texas. 

1845-1849 — Fo!k's  Administration. — Domestic  relations  now  give  di- 
rection to  Foreign  policy.  Oregon  boundary.  .  Chain  of  ca".ses  leading 
to  the  Mexican  war.  Boundary  claimed  by  Texas.  Mexican  war, 
May,  1846,  to  February,  1848. 

Note. — Head  the  details  ;  give  the  leading  military  events  in  se- 
quence, omitting  all  dates  excepting  years.  Teach  with  the  following 
grouping  :  Northern  operations — Taylor  east  of  the  Rio  Grande — west 
(if  it.  Wool — Kearney — Doniphan — Fremont.  Southern  operations  : 
Scoti's  campaign. 

Treaty  of  Guadaloupe  Hidalgo — its  terms.  Discovery  of  California 
gold  in  1848 — its  important  subsequent  influence  upon  the  national 
development. 

1849-1853 — Taylor  and  Fillmore's  Administration. — Slavery  question 
the  leading  element  in  subsequent  history.  California  question,  1850 
— its  alleged  relation  to  the  Missouri  Compromise.  Death  of  Taylor 
Clay's  Compromise  Bill,  1850. 


HISTORY    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.  123 

1853-1857 — Pierce's  Administration. — Effects  of  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Bill.  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  1854 — it  abrogates  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise. Rise  of  a  new  party,  "  Free  soil"  or  Republican.  Civil  war  in 
Kansas,  its  causes  ;  flow  of  immigrants  into  the  Territory. 

1857-1861 — Buchaiinn's  Administration. — Kansas  troubles.  John 
Brown's  afEair — ^its  effects.  Split  of  the  great  Democratic  party.  Four 
Presidential  candidates.  Election  of  Lincoln.  Extreme  doctrine  of 
State  Rights.  Secession  of  South  Carolina,  December,  1860.  Fort 
Sumter.  More  States  secede.  Confederate  Government  formed, 
February,  1861. 

1861-1865 — Lijicolrt's  Administration. — Civil  "War.  Fort  Sumter, 
April  12,  1861.  Effects  upon  the  North.  President's  proclamation. 
More  States  secede,  making  eleven  in  all. 

Note. — Read  the  details  of  the  war  ;  show  the  importance  of  foreign 
intervention,  and  the  efforts  on  both  sides  in  regard  to  it. 

lu  the  review  show  that  the  operations  of  the  Confederates  were 
mainly  defensive,  except  in  the  great  sorties  of  Lee  at  Antietam  and 
Gettysburg,  of  Hood  at  Nashville,  and  of  Early  at  Chambersburg — all 
of  which  were  repelled.  That  the  main  objects  of  the  aggressive 
movements  of  the  Union  troops  were,  1st,  the  destruction  of  Lee's 
army  ;  2d,  the  opening  of  the  Mississippi.  That  after  the  opening  of 
that  river  by  the  fall  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  and  the  subse- 
quent capture  of  New  Orleans  and  Vicksburg,  the  lines  were  con- 
tracted by  a  movement  from  the  northwest  to  the  southeast,  ending  in 
Sherman's  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah  and  Goldsboro'.  The 
leading  incidents  will  then  readily  fall  into  place.  Show  the  im- 
portance of  the  blockade,  the  chief  function  of  the  fleet ;  also,  but  very 
briefly,  the  enormous  expenditure  of  men  and  money  on  both  bides, 
and  the  measures  by  which  they  .were  obtained. 

1865-1869 — Johnson's  Administration. — Death  of  Lincoln.  The  two 
subjects  of  leading  importance— 1st,  providing  for  the  public  debt; 
2d,  reconstruction.  The  Thirteenth  Amendment.  The  President  and 
Congress  quarrel.  Impeachment.  The  French  in  Mexico  and  the  de- 
mand of  the  United  States  Government.  Purchase  of  Alaska.  Laying 
of  the  Atlantic  cable. 

1860-1877 — GranVs  Administration. — Pacific  Railway.  Fourteenth 
and  Fifteenth  Amendments.  Alabama  question.  Leading  provisions 
of  the  Treaty  of  Washington.     The  Geneva  arbitration. 

1877-1881 — Ilayei  Administration. — Dispute  about  election  of 
Tilden. 

1881 — Garfield's  Admirmtration. — Death  of  Garfield.  Successor, 
Vice-President  Chester  A.  Arthur. 


FIRST  GRADE. 

Outline  Course. 

1.  Language  Lessons. — Reading,  spelling,  meaning,  and  use  of 
words,  continued ;  supplementary  reading  as  before  ;  English  Gram- 
mar, continued  ;  composition,  continued  ;  a  review  of  the  previous 
grades  in  t^e  formation  of  woi'ds. 

2.  Arithmetic. —  Written  and  mental:  a  review  of  the  business 
arithmetic  of  the  preceding  grades  ;  also,  exchange,  equation  of  pay- 
ments, averaging  accounts,  custom-house  business,  partnership,  and  me?i- 
suration. 

3.  Geography. — A  general  review. 

4.  History  of  the  United  States.  — A  general  review,  and  the  principal 
features  of  the  Federal,  State,  and  Municipal  Governments. 

5.  Penmanship. — Exercises  in  copy-books,  and  in  writing  selected 
paragraphs  from  dictation  ;  business  forms ;  letter- writing,  continued. 

6.  Drawing. — On  paper,  from  illustration  on  blackboard  only. 
Draw  from  the  round  (free  hand),  hexagonal  and  octagonal  prisms. 
Groups  of  the  following  models :  cube,  cone,  cylinder,  plinths,  pyra- 
mid, antique  vase.     Original  designs  for  industrial  purposes. 

The  oval,   ellipse,   hexagon,  octagon,  pentagon,  concentric  circles, 
concentric  squares,  spiral,  equilateral  triangle,  and  trefoil. 
Two  examples  of  bi-symmetrical  historic  ornament. 

Perspective  Drawing  {permissible). — Draw  in  parallel  perspective 
the  cube,  square  prism,  pyramid,  hexagonal  prism,  the  circle,  cone, 
and  cylinder. 

Draw  in  angular  perspective  the  cube,  square  prism,  and  pyramid. 


INSTRUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


LANGUAGE. 


The  general  instructions  and  suggestions  for 

Reading,  found  on  page  20 ;  those  for 

Spelling,  on  page  29  ;  those  for  the 

Meaning  and  Uses  of  "Words,  on  page  31  ;  and  those 
for 

Composition,  on  page  28,  are  to  be  taken  as  belonging 
to  this  Grade. 

GEAJVJGVIAR. 

1.  Sentences  of  an  irregular  or  idiomatic  construction 
should  be  presented  to  the  pupil,  with  the  view  to  show 
how  far  they  can  be  made  to  harmonize  with  the  ordinary 
methods  of  construction,  and  to  teach  the  just  limits  of 
their  use. 

2.  The  exercises  in  grammar  should  embrace  the  care- 
ful and  critical  study  of  select  passages  from  some  of 
the  best  English  and  American  writers  ;  as  Shakspeare, 
Milton,  Pope,  Cowper,  Young,  Bryant,  Longfellow,  etc. 
Prose  writers,  such  as  Addison,  Johnson,  etc.,  should  also  be 
drawn  upon  for  exercises,  always,  however,  with  a  critical 
end  in  view,  to  discover  and  correct  errors,  as  well  as  to 
find  exceUences  and  beauties. 

3.  Such  exercises,  to  however  limited  an  extent  it  is 
possible  to  carry  them,  will  always  exert  an  important  in- 


126  FIRST   GRADE. 

fluence  upon  the  pupils'  style  of  composition,  if  not  of 
daily  speech.  They  will  serve,  moreover,  to  cultivate  the 
taste  of  the  pupils,  and  to  awaken  an  interest  in  their 
minds  in  the  study  of  English  and  American  literature. 
A  good  reading- book  will  be  found  an  important  auxiliary 
in  carrying  on  the  instruction  here  suggested. 

Outline. 

Idiomatic  expressions  and  sentences  of  irregular  construction  ;  sim- 
ple, complex,  and  compound  sentences  continued  ;  conjugations  ;  para- 
phrases exercising  the  pupils  in  the  interchange  of  words  and  their 
equivalent  phrases,  and  of  phrases  and  their  equivalent  clauses.  Gen- 
eral review. 

AEITHMETIC. 

Every  topic  to  be  treated  in  this  grade  should  be  intro- 
duced by  mental  exercises,  the  slate  being  used  only  when 
the  numbers  involved  are  too  large  to  be  readily  retained 
in  the  mind  without  being  written.  The  pupils  should  be 
constantly  practised  in  this  mental  work.  The  text-hook  in 
mental  arithmetic  should  be  sparingly  used,  if  used  at  all; 
and  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  assigning  lessons  for 
home-study  in  this  branch. 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 

1.  Exchange. — Its  nature  ;  bills  of  exchange  ;  par  of  exchange  ; 
acceptance;  domestic  exchange — to  include  two  cases.  1.  To  find 
the  cost  of  a  draft  when  its  face  and  the  rate  are  given.  2.  To  find  the 
face,  the  cost  and  rate  being  given ;  foreign  exchange,  including  the 
consideration  of  bills  on  England,  France,  and  Germany  (cases  as  in 
domestic  exchange)  ;  analysis  as  in  percentage. 

2.  Equation  op  Payments. — Cases  :  1.  To  find  average  time  of 
payment,  when  the  items  have  the  same  date^  but  different  credits.  2. 
When  the  items  have  different  dates.  3.  To  find  the  average  time  for 
paying  balance  of  account,  having  both  debits  and  credits.  Analysis, 
on  the  principle  of  interest  ;  reduction  of  each  principal  involved  to  $1 
preferable. 


GEOGRAPPIY.  127 

3.  CusTOM-HouSE  Business. — Meaning  and  practical  applications 
of  the  following  terms :  Customs,  Custom-house,  Port  of  Entry,  Collec- 
tor of  Port,  Tariff,  Duties — Specific  and  Ad  Valorem,  Invoice,  Tare, 
Tret,  or  Draft,  Gross,  Net,  etc. 

4.  Stocks  and  Bonds. 

5.  Partnership. — Terms  defined.  Cases:  1.  To  find  each  partner'.^ 
Bhare  when  the  profit  or  loss  is  divided  according  to  capital  only,  in- 
cluding simple  cases  of  gener<il  average.  2.  To  find  it  when  time  is  con- 
sidered.    Analysis,  fractional,  or  by  means  of  proportion. 

6.  Mensuration.  —  Include  at  least  the  following  cases  :  1.  To  find 
the  area  of  a  parallelogram  when  the  base  and  altitude  are  given.  2. 
To  find  the  area  of  quadrilaterals,  with  sufficient  data.  3.  To  find  the 
area  of  triangles.  4.  To  find  the  area  of  a  circle.  5.  To  find  the  diame- 
ter or  circumference  of  a  circle.  6.  To  find  the  solid  contents  of  a 
cube,  parallelepiped,  prism,  pyramid,  cylinder,  cone,  and  sphere.  7. 
To  find  the  contents  of  a  cask  or  other  vessel. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

General  Review, — This  review  slioiild  include  and  gen- 
eralize so  much  of  the  simple  facts  of  the  Physical  Geog- 
raphy already  taught  in  the  preceding  grades  as  will  enable 
the  pupil  to  understand  and  illustrate  the  great  principle 
of  geography  as  a  science,  namely,  that  the  resources  and 
development  of  a  country  depend  intimately  upon  its  sit- 
uation, latitude,  elevation,  winds,  rain-fall,  temperature, 
soil,  minerals,  waterways,  and  the  gcnei-al  character  of  its 
surface.  The  review  of  Industrial  and  Commercial  Ge- 
ography, with  which  the  preceding  should  be  blended, 
should  include  a  brief  outline  of  the  leading  agricultural, 
mineral,  and  manufactured  ])roducts,  and  the  chief  exports 
of  the  various  countries  of  the  world,  their  principal  ports, 
and  especially  those  that  have  an  important  trade  with  the 
United  States.  The  review  of  Political  Geography  should 
comprise  a  brief  resume  of  the  names  and  location  of  the 
capitals  and  large  cities  of  the  several  countries,  and  their 
forms  of  eovernment. 


128  FIKST   GRADE. 


HISTOEY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

For  general  suggestions  and  syllabus  of  topics,  see  pre- 
ceding grades.  The  general  review  should  be  in  all  the 
three  forms  described  on  page  81. 

It  should  also  include  a  brief  but  definite  outline  state- 
ment of  the  rapid  development  of  the  country  since  1815, 
and  of  the  leading  elements  in  that  development.  Emi- 
gration and  Immigration.  Ei-ie  Canal  and  the  Great  Lakes 
as  the  great  waterway.  Steam — steamboats — railways- 
telegraphs.  In  the  review  include  a  notice  of  prominent 
men,  such  as  Calhoun,  Clay,  Webster,  Seward,  Greeley, 
Fulton,  Morse,  etc. 

The  study  of  the  History  of  the  United  States  is  to  in- 
clude a  very  brief  consideration  of  the  principal  features 
of  the  Federal,  State,  and  Municipal  Governments,  but 
not  as  a  separate  study.  Only  the  leading  features  are  to 
be  taught,  and  most  of  these  as  incidental  to  the  current 
study  or  review  of  the  lessons  in  history.  For  instance, 
the  preamble  of  the  Constitution  is  intimately  comiected 
with  certain  historic  events,  and  the  real  significance  both 
of  the  events  and  of  the  preamble  can  be  perceived  only 
by  studying  them  in  combination.  Firsts  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution — see  1787-89  ;  Second^  the  term  ^'^ peo- 
ple " — not  peoples  ;  Third,  States  already  "  united  " — see 
1860  ;  Fourth, "  more  perfect  union  " — see  Articles  of  Con- 
federation and  the  imperfect  union  then  existing  ;  Fifth, 
"  insure  domestic  tranquillity  " — see  Shay's  Rebellion,  the 
dangerous  boundary  disputes  of  New  York,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Vermont,  and  other  States,  etc.  Again,  the  im- 
peachment of  Burr,  or  of  Johnson,  the  succession  of  Tyler 
and  other  Yice-Presidents  to  the  presidency,  etc.,  will  give 


HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  129 

proper  occasion  to  consider  tlie  functions  of  these  officers 
and  of  the  Supreme  Court.  The  Whiskey  Rebellion  and 
the  Nullification  dispute  will  give  significance  to  the  phrase 
"  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  excise,"  etc. ;  1812 
and  1846  will  illustrate  "power  to  declare  war" — and  so 
on  with  scores  of  points  of  interest  and  importance  to 
every  intelligent  citizen.  A  brief  and  convenient  syllabus 
is  subjoined. 

SYLLABUS  OF  TOPICS. 

Constitution. — Meaning  of  the  term  ;  supreme  law  ;  when,  why,  how, 
and  by  whom  established  ;  how  amended. 

Branches  of  Government. — General  function  of  each  ;  what  and  who 
are  citizens  ;  some  of  their  most  important  rights  ;  rights  of  accused 
persons  ;  fugitives  from  justice.     Census  ;  when  and  why  taken. 

Congress. — Branches  ;  principal  powers  of  Congress  ;  powers  denied  ; 
on  holding  other  offices  ;  time  and  place  of  meeting. 

Senate. — Ntimber  of  Senators  ;  qualifications  ;  by  whom  chosen  ;  they 
represent  the  States  as  States  ;  term  ;  chief  special  powers  and  duties  ; 
presiding  officer. 

House  of  Representatives. — Number  from  each  State  ;  qualifications  ; 
by  whom  chosen;  direct  representatives  of  the  "people" — not  of  a 
State,  but  of  the  United  States.  Principal  special  powers  and  duties  ; 
presiding  officer. 

Laws. — The  several  stages  by  which  a  "  bill  "  becomes  a  law. 

Executive. — President  and  Vice-President ;  qualifications  ;  how  chosen ; 
chief  powers  and  duties  ;  veto. 

Judiciary  (very  briefly). — Courts  ;  judges  ;  how  appointed  ;  general 
duties  ;  impeachment. 

State  Governments. — Officials  ;  Legislature  ;  branches  ;  law-making 
power  ;  where  meet  ;  municipal  government  ;  cities  ;  officials  ;  their 
powers  and  duties. 

Im,portant  Terms  and  Phrases. — Trial  by  jury  ;  habeas  corpus  act ;  ex 
post  facto  law  ;  treason  ;  attainder  ;  quorum  ;  elector  ;  presidential 
elector. 

6* 


130  PENMANSHIP. 


PEOIANSHIP. 


Penma/nship  is  prescribed  to  be  taught  in  each  grade  of 
the  Grammar  School  Course  :  in  addition  to  this  constant 
practice  is  also  required  in  slate-writiiuj,.  By  means  of  the 
latter  much  can  be  accomplished  in  insuring  to  the  pupil 
readiness  and  fluency  in  the  exercise  of  penmanship. 

The  exercises  in  written  spelling,  composition,  etc., 
sliould  be  performed  with  accuracy,  even  if  some  sacrifice 
of  rapidity  be  at  first  required.  Of  course,  there  should 
be  a  constant  effort  to  improve  both  in  rapidity  and  ac- 
curacy— quantity  as  well  as  quality  being  made  a  criterion 
of  merit  and  success. 

The  slate-writing  should,  as  far  as  it  is  practicable,  ex- 
emplify the  principles  and  methods  formally  taught  in  the 
lessons  in  penmanship.  Pupils  should  not  be  permitted 
to  violate  in  one  class  of  exercises  the  rules  and  precepts 
taught  and  practised  in  another.  This  is  especially  ap- 
plicable to  the  holding  of  the  pencil,  which  should  be 
sufficiently  long  to  be  held  as  a,_pen. 

The  lessons  on  penmanship  should  be  methodical  and 
progressive,  whatever  system  may  be  employed.  In  the 
lower  grades  the  exercises  should  be  rudimentary,  but  the 
pupil  should  not  be  retained  in  them  too  long.  He  should 
be  permitted  to  write  as  much  as  possible  :  making  strol:es 
and  curves  is  not  writing,  although  it  may  be  valuable  as 
leading  to  it. 

The  use  of  trial 2)apers  should  not  be  carried  to  the  ex- 
treme of  withholding  the  pupil  for  a  considerable  tin)e 
from  the  use  of  his  copy-book.  The  pupil  should  be 
taught  the  necessity  of  doing  everj-thing  as  well  as  he  can 
do  it ;  but  perfection  in  details  should  not  be  expected  in 


PENMANSHIP.   .  131 

the  radimental  stages.  It  should,  J'ro?n  the  first,  be  deeincd 
essential  (at  least  meritorious)  to  execute  the  prescribed 
work  with  despatch,  provided  there  is  no  want  of  care  or 
attention. 

A  proper  distinction  should  be  made  between  the  les- 
sons given  to  show  the  pupils  how  to  write  and  the  exer- 
cises designed  to  practise  them  on  what  they  have  thus 
learned.  In  the  former,  the  whole  class  should  invariably 
be  occupied  in  the  same  work,  the  teacher  explaining,  and 
illustrating  from  the  blackboard,  the  principles  and 
methods  which  form  the  subject  of  the  lesson :  in  the  lat- 
ter, practice  being  the  object  in  view,  it  is  not  so  essential 
that  all  the  pupils  should  be  doing  the  same  thing  at  the 
same  time,  although  even  here  it  is  a  convenience  to  the 
teacher,  since  it  facilitates  supervision. 

It  should  be  carefully  kept  in  view  that  the  hand  and 
the  eye  as  well  as  the  ?nindoi  the  pupil  are  to  be  trained  in 
this  branch  of  instruction — the  hand  to  execute,  the  eye 
to  discern,  the  mind  to  judge.  These  are  not  to  be  edu- 
cated separately  and  successively,  but  simultaneously. 

A  correct  method  of  holding  the  pen,  a  proper  position 
of  the  body  while  sitting  at  the  writing-desk,  and  a  suit- 
able placing  of  the  book  or  paper,  are  highly  conducive  to 
the  acquisition  of  a  good  handwriting.  Ev^ery  lesson 
should,  for  some  time,  be  introduced  by  distinct  directions 
as  to  the  proper  method  of  holding  the  pen,  and  these 
the  pupils  should  not  be  peruntted  to  violate.  AVith  re- 
gard to  the  position  of  body  and  position  of  book,  a 
few  simple  directions  will  be  all  that  are  requisite.  The 
teacher  should  see  that  the  pupils  sit  in  such  a  position  as 
to  allow  perfect  freedom  of  motion  of  the  right  hand  and 
arm,  ease  of  respiration,  and  as  much  physical  ease  other- 
wise as  the  seat  and  desk  will  permit. 


132  DRAWING. 

The  books  should,  if  possible,  be  provided  with  covers 
and  blotters  ;  the  pens  should  be  carefully  cleaned  at  the 
end  of  each  lesson,  and  should  be  changed  as  often  as 
necessary  ;  and  the  ink  should  be  kept  in  the  best  condi- 
tion. Each  page  of  the  book  should  end  with  the  name 
of  the  pupil  and  with  the  date. 

In  the  higher  grades — the  Ji?'st  at  least — the  writing  of 
copies  consisting  each  of  a  single  line,  should  be  discon- 
tinued ;  and  paragraphs,  verses,  business  forms,  notes, 
superscriptions,  etc.,  should  take  their  place.  The  exer- 
cises in  book-keeping  should  be  made  subservient  to  the 
instruction  in  penmanship,  writing  up  the  usual  blank- 
books  being  made,  to  some  extent  at  least,  a  substitute  for 
the  use  of  copy-books.  Yarious  styles  of  writing  should 
be  taught,  as  far  as  time  and  opportunity  may  permit — 
as  the  business  style,  epistolatory  style,  engrossing  style, 
etc.  This  has  reference  to  the  Female  as  well  as  the  Male 
Grammar  Schools. 


DRAWING. 

Instructions  and  Suggestions. 

The  course  in  drawing  for  the  primary  classes  has  been 
designed  to  familiarize  the  pupils  with  the  use  of  the 
pencil  in  drawing  (free  hand)  straight  and  simple  curved 
lines  in  different  positions ;  to  teach  them  to  draw  lines  of 
given  lengths,  and  to  divide  lines  into  equal  parts ;  to 
cause  them  to  make  applications  of  this  elementary  work 
in  drawing  various  plane  figures  ;  and  to  give  them  some 
idea  of  symmetry  as  shown  by  simple  arrangements  of 
straight  and  curved  lines  in  plane  figures.  With  this  prep- 
aration the  pupils  of  the  Grammar  Grades  should  be  able, 


DRAWING.  133 

without  any  great  difficult}',  to  accomplish  the  work  laid 
down  for  them.  In  what  follows,  work  of  the  same 
character,  extending  through  several  grades,  is  considered 
under  one  general  head,  and  not  in  detail  in  the  separate 
grades  :  notes  are  also  made  under  each  grade  when  found 
necessary. 

Lead  Pencils. — A  very  soft  pencil  should  not  be  used 
for  sketching,  as  it  interferes  with  the  neatness  of  the 
drawing :  a  hard  pencil  should  not  be  used  for  strengthen- 
ing lines,  as  it  makes  depressions  in  the  paper.  If  but  one 
pencil  be  used,  let  it  be  of  a  medium  grade. 

In  sketching  the  pencil  should  be  held  lightly,  at  least 
an  inch  from  the  point ;  in  strengthening  a  line  the  pencil 
may  be  held  nearer  the  point.  Use  the  point  of  the  lead 
for  fine  lines,  the  side  of  the  lead  for  stronger  ones. 

Eraser's. — In  general  the  eraser  is  necessary,  but  it 
should  be  used  as  seldom  as  possible.  To  impress  upon 
pupils  the  necessity  of  carefulness,  have  them  draw  a 
figure  occasionally  without  the  eraser. 

Mechanical  Aids. — Mechanical  aids,  such  as  rulers, 
measures,  and  compasses,  may  be  used  with  advantage  in 
the  following  cases :  a  plane  figure  which  is  to  inclose  a 
svmmetrical  arrano-ement  or  a  desisrn  :  construction  lines  of 
such  arrangement  or  design  ;  lines  that  contain  a  border 
or  that  separate  its  units. 

The  construction  lines  of  vases  and  of  conventionalized 
leaves  and  flowers  are  sufiiciently  simple  to  be  made  with- 
out mechanical  aids. 

Bla^hhoards. — In  each  grade  the  blackboard  should  be 
used  by  the  teacher  to  illustrate  the  method  of  drawing 
the  figure  or  of  forming  the  design  under  consideration  : 
the  slate  or  paper  may  be  used  by  the  pupils  to  follow 
rapidly  the  successive  steps  of  the  teacher. 


134  DRAWING. 

While  it  is  preferable  that  the  teacher's  blackboard 
sketching  should  be  neat  and  accurate,  it  is  not  essential 
for  this  point  of  the  instruction :  it  is  essential,  however, 
that  drawings  which  are  to  be  copied^  whether  from  chart 
or  blackboard,  should  be  as  accurate  as  it  is  possible  to 
make  them. 

Plane  Figures. — All  the  plane  figures  are  suflSciently 
simple  to  be  drawn  M^ithout  mechanical  aids. 

Symmetry. — In  forming  a  bi-sym  metrical  figure  the 
principal  axis  should  be  drawn  first,  the  transverse  auxili- 
aries next,  and  then  the  outline.  If  the  principal  axis  be 
vertical  the  left-hand  portion  of  the  figure  should  be 
drawn  first ;  if  horizontal,  the  upper  portion  first.  These 
suggestions  are  often  applicable  in  drawing  vases  and  con- 
ventionalized leaves. 

Borders. — In  drawing  horizontal  borders  it  will  be  well, 
after  the  construction  lines  have  been  made,  to  complete 
tlie  left-hand  unit  before  beginning  the  next:  in  drawing 
vertical  borders  begin  at  the  top. 

Le(mes  and  Flowers. — Encourage  pupils  to  gather  leaves 
and  flowers  appropriate  to  the  grade,  and  teach  them  to 
conventionalize  them  :  by  this  means  the  pupils  will  be 
led  to  seek  originality  in  design,  a  most  important  point 
in  the  instruction  in  drawing. 

Yases. — As  it  is  almost  impossible  to  have  a  sufficient 
variety  of  vases  in  any  school,  ask  the  children  to  note 
carefully  the  forms  of  such  as  they  may  see  elsewhere. 
Have  them  sketch  these  rapidly,  as  they  may  remember 
them :  from  these  sketches  make  selections  for  general 
class-work.  By  preserving  the  best  forms  thus  gathered, 
each  teacher  may,  in  the  course  of  a  few  terms,  become 
possessed  of  a  great  variety. 

Ornjinal  Designs. — In   designs  for  wall-paper,  etc.,,  in 


DEAWING.  135 

wliich  a  unit  is  to  be  repeated,  the  first  unit  slionld  be 
drawn  with  great  accuracy ;  the  remaining  units  may 
be  "  transferred ; "  few  repetitions  of  the  unit  need  be 
made. 

Dravnncj  from  the  Model. — In  teaching  drawing  from 
the  model  it  is  necessary  that  instruction  first  be  given  on 
such  essential  points  as  the  following :  the  apparent  con- 
vergence of  receding  parallel  lines ;  the  representation  of 
a  circle,  viewed  obliquely,  by  an  ellipse  ;  tangential  lines 
in  a  drawing  of  a  cone.  After  this  preliminarj'  instruc- 
tion, tlie  model  should  be  so  placed  that  each  pupil  will 
liave  a  good  view  of  its  characteristic  features  :  each  pupil 
should  then  draw  it  on  paper  as  he  sees  it.  Tlie  drawing 
of  the  object  as  it  actually  appears  to  each  pupil — not  the 
copying  of  what  may  appear  to  some  one  pupil  in  a  par- 
ticular position — is  the  work  designed  for  the  Second  and 
First  Grades. 

Home  Work. — Home  work  may  be  given  to  pupils  in 
the  First  and  Second  Grades. 

Seventh  Grade. — In  the  example  of  surface  covering 
it  may  be  found  desirable  to  arrange  the  design  by  actual 
measurements :  the  lines,  however,  should  be  drawn  free- 
hand. 

Sixth  Grade. — It  will  be  well  to  show  the  pupils  how 
to  make  ellipses  by  means  of  their  foci:  afterward  teach 
them  to  draw,  with  the  aid  of  the  axes,  the  ellipses  speci- 
fied for  this  grade. 

The  two  views  of  the  conventional  leaf  and  flower  may 
be  a  front  and  a  side  view. 

Fifth  Grade. — The  method  of  constructing  the  penta- 
gon ma}^  be  taught  the  pupils  first  by  mechanical  aids :  af- 
terward the  same  principles  of  construction  should  be  i\\>- 
plied  in  drawing  it  free-hand. 


136  INSTRUCTION   IN    VOCAL   MUSIC. 

Fourth  Grade. — Three  convolutions  of  the  spiral  will 
be  sufficient. 

Third  Grade. — In  the  circular  border  the  ornamenta- 
tion should  not  be  so  minute  as  to  cause  many  repetitions 
of  a  unit. 


COUESE  OF  IXSTEUCTION  IN  VOCAL  MUSIC. 

Eighth  Grade. — Songs  and  exercises  in  key  of  C. 
Whole,  half,  and  quarter  notes  and  rests.  Dotted  halves 
and  quarters.  Double,  triple,  and  quadruple  time.  Ex- 
pression marks  J9,  f,  mf.  Common  chord  in  three  posi- 
tions. 

Seventh  Grade. — Songs  and  exercises  in  key  of  C. 
Scale  extended  upward  to  F,  downward  to  G.  Sixteenth 
notes  and  rests.  Dotted  eighths.  Expression  marks  ;ff 
and  2)p.  Common  chord  in  three  positions.  Common 
intervals.  Formation  of  major  scale.  Tetrachords. 
J^otes  of  common  chord  in  accord. 

Sixth  Grade. — Songs  and  exercises  in  key  of  C  con- 
tinued. Formation  of  G  scale  and  coinparison  with  that 
of  C.  Easy  exercises  and  songs  in  key  of  G.  Common 
chord  of  each  key  in  three  positions.     Sextuple  time. 

Fifth  Grade. — Two-part  singing  in  keys  of  C,  G,  and 
F,     Use  of  sign  <> . 

Fourth  Grade. — Two-part  singing  in  keys  of  C,  G, 
F  and  D. 

Third  Grade. — Two-part  singing  in  keys  of  C,  G,  F, 
D  and  A. 

Second  Grade. — Two-part  singing  in  keys  of  C,  G,  D, 
A,  F,  B  flat  and  E  flat.     Triads. 

First  Grade. — Three-part  singing.  Major  and  minor 
thirds.     Chord  of  the  seventh.     Minor  keys. 


INSTRUCTION   IN    VOCAL   MUSIC.  137 

Rules  Relating  to  the  Posture  of  the  Body  and  the 
Position  of  the  Mouth. 

The  singer  should  stand  upright,  letting  the  body  rest 
upon  both  feet,  the  heels  just  touching  each  other. 
Tlirowing  the  weight  upon  one  foot  is  to  be  avoided,  be- 
cause it  forces  the  body  into  a  curved  and  inelegant  posi- 
tion, and  causes  tones  produced  to  be  wanting  in  precision. 
The  arms  should  neither  be  fixed  rigidly  by  the  side  nor 
be  folded  across  the  chest. 

The  head  should  be  held  easily  erect. 

The  shoulders  should  be  thrown  back,  the  chest  inflated, 
and  the  abdomen  somewhat  drawn  in  so  as  to  allow  the 
lungs  fully  to  expand. 

The  mouth  should  be  opened  wide  enough  to  admit  the 
passage  of  the  thumb  in  its  breadth  between  the  front 
teeth.  The  jaws  should  be  held  one  exactly  above  the 
other,  and  the  tonirue  be  allowed  to  lie  flat  in  the  mouth, 
before  any  attempt  to  sing  is  made.  This  position  of  the 
organs  in  question  should  be  assumed,  lest  the  nasal 
sound  of  n  become  audible ;  and  it  must  not  be  altered 
during  the  continuance  of  a  tone,  for  by  every  such 
change  the  tone  is  modified. 

Beware  especially  of  any  distortion  of  the  countenance. 

The  Breathing. 

The  management  of  the  breath  in  singing  is  of  the 
greatest  importance ;  for  upon  the  manner  and  regularity 
of  the  singer's  breathing  depend  the  formation  of  the 
tone  and  the  successful  rendering  of  the  nuisical  phrases 
and  of  the  text. 

The  breathing  should  be  done  in  audibly.     The  pupil 


138  INSTRUCTION   IN   VOCAL   MUSIC. 

sliould  be  especially  instructed  in  the  art  of  producing 
prolonged  tones  at  as  little  expense  of  breath  as  possible  ; 
at  first  with  soft  tones,  with  loud  tones  afterward. 

Breath  may  be  taken  at  any  point  wdiere  the  meaning 
of  the  text  and  the  connection  of  the  melody  will  not  be 
interrupted  ;  therefore,  after  pauses  or  punctuation  marks ; 
at  the  completion  of  a  musical  group  ;  before  long  notes ; 
before  the  last  or  after  the  first  beat  of  a  measure  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  after  the  accented  beats.  The  latter  direction 
is  given,  because  at  snch  points  a  better  conclusion  of  the 
melody  is  possible.  It  is  a  rule  of  the  first  importance 
that  breath  be  not  taken  at  a  bar ;  that  is,  after  an  un- 
accented beat.  An  exception  to  this  rule  is  made  only 
when  the  rhythmic  structure  of  the  melody,  or  the  punc- 
tuation, demands  it. 

The  time  that  is  needed  for  breathing  never  is  to  be 
taken  from  the  tone  hefore,  but  from  the  tone  after  which 
breath  is  drawn.  For  instance,  if  the  tone  after  which 
one  breathes  is  represented  by  a  quarter  note,  it  is  sung 
as  an  eighth  note,  the  other  half  of  its  value  in  time  being 
used  for  breathing. 

As  the  singer  should  always  have  a  good  supply  of 
breath  on  hand,  prudence  demands  that  he  should  not 
only  use  his  breath  economically,  but  that  he  always 
should  take  breath  wherever,  according  to  the  foregoing 
rules,  he  is  permitted  to  do  so  ;  for  if  he  do  not,  he  may 
be  forced  to  breathe  Mdien  the  rules  forbid  it.  Neglect  of 
this  wise  precautioTi  is  apt  to  force  the  singer  to  "  press  " 
the  tone,  whereby  it  receives  a  languid,  thin,  uneasy 
coloring. 

After  one  long,  full  breath  has  been  taken,  it  is  well 
that  the  subsequent  breathings  be  short  or  medium  in 
length  ;  otherwise  the  lungs  may  become  fatigued.     It  is, 


INSTRUCTION   IN   VOCAL   MUSIC.  139 

perhaps,  needless  to  add  that  the  physical  constitution 
and  the  age  of  the  singer  must  always  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. 


Peonunciation. 

The  pronunciation  of  the  words  of  the  text  must  be 
clear  and  correct.  A  distinct  enunciation  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  singing ;  for  upon  a  clear  utterance  of  the 
vowel  sounds  depends  the  beauty  of  the  tones,  and  upon 
a  distinct  pronunciation  of  the  consonants  depends  the 
hearer's  understanding  of  the  words  of  the  text. 

Musical  accent  or  rhythm  is  simple  or  compound. 
Double  time  and  triple  time  are  forms  of  simple  rhythm, 
in  each  of  which  the  first  beat  is  accented.  Double  time 
gives  origin  to  quadruple  time ;  triple  time  to  sextuple, 
9-8,  and  12-8  time. 

Ex])ressioii  depends  npon  the  choice  of  the  right  tempo 
and  pitch,  the  proper  degree  of  loudness,  and  upon  cor- 
rect declamation. 

In  singing,  beware  of  dragging  and  shouting.  The 
initial  tone  mnst  be  given  precisely,  even  in  piano  pas- 
sages. The  sliding  of  the  voice  in  search  of  the  right 
tone  is  not  to  be  tolerated.  The  singing  must  pour  foith 
as  from  a  single  mouth. 

Gloomy  weather  causes  the  spirit  to  flag,  and  makes 
every  exertion  a  burden  ;  the  judicious  teacher  will  take 
this  into  consideration  in  determining  tlie  possibilities 
regarding  correctness. 


140  PERMISSIBLE   SUBJECTS. 


PERMISSIBLE  SUBJECTS. 

Elements  of  plane  geometry,  algebra,  perspective  draw- 
ing, book-keeping,  and  outlines  of  astronomy  are  per- 
missible subjects.  Any  or  all  of  these  subjects  may  be 
taught  in  any  school  if  permitted  by  the  Committee  on 
Course  of  Study  upon  application  by  the  Board  of  Trus- 
tees, 

ALGEBRA. 

1.  This  subject  is  to  be  taught  as  a  peculiar  mathemati- 
cal language^  by  means  of  which  the  relations  of  quantities 
and  the  results  of  their  combinations  may  be  expressed, 
and  reasoning  in  regard  to  them  may  be  facilitated.  The 
symbols  of  quantity,  relation,  and  operation,  should  at  first 
be  carefully  taught  and  illustrated. 

2.  The  simple  operations  of  addition,  subtraction,  mul- 
tiplication, and  division,  should  not  be  exhaustively  treated, 
as  is  usually  done,  before  the  pupil  is  made  acquainted 
with  the  nature  and  use  of  equations.  The  equation  is  to 
Algebra  what  the  proposition  is  to  ordinary  language.  It 
is  the  means  of  definitely  expressing  a  mathematical  truth, 
either  particular  or  general.  Inequations  (technically  so 
called)  express  truths,  but  not  exactly.  When  we  say 
X  +  y  >  T5,  we  do  not  indicate  Tiow  much  the  sum  of  x 
and  y  exceeds  75  ;  but  when  we  say  x+y  =  6,  we  express 
a  pi'ecise  fact.  It  is  suggested,  therefore,  that  equations 
be  presented  very  soon  after  the  preliminary  explanation 
of  the  symbols  employed.  The  examples  of  equations 
first  presented  should  be  of  the  simplest  character ;  and 
their  use  in  the  solution  of  problems  should  be  objectively 
shown.  This  can  be  done  by  employing  a  few  very  easy 
questions ;  as,  What  number  is  that,  to  tJie  half  of  which  if 


PERMISSIBLE   SUBJECTS.  141 

5  he  added  the  sum  will  Jt?  11  ?  The  pupil  can  be  easily 
made  to  perceive  the  use  of  so  expressing  the  condition 
that  it  can  be  kept  clearly  in  view  ;  as  {x  representing  the 
unknown  number)  f  +  5  =  11. 

}  In  solving  such  a  problem,  the  successive  steps  or  jpro- 
cesscs  of  reasoning  should  be  kept  in  view.  Thus,  sub- 
tracting 5  from  each  member,  the  result  (expressed  by  a 
second  equation)  is,  f  =  6  ;  and,  multiplying  by  2,  the  re- 
sult (expressed  by  a  third  equation)  is  x  =  12,  which  gives 
the  solution.     (Applied  axiom  to  be  referred  to.) 

Such  an  exercise,  properly  performed,  will  develop  more 
intelligence  than  will  whole  months  of  mechanically  work- 
ing out  by  blind  rules,  long  sums  in  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  and  division.  These  exercises  are  proper 
in  their  place,  but  of  themselves  they  have  little,  if  any, 
educational  or  practical  value. 

Syllabus  op  Topics. 

1.  Preliminary  eyplanation  of  symbols — letters,  as  representatives  of 
quantity  signs  ;  signs  of  relation  or  operation,  as,  +,  — ,  x  ,  -j-,  =,  etc.; 
exercises  to  familiarize  the  pupil  with  their  significance  and  the  mode  of 
reading  them. 

Note. — It  will  be  of  great  service  to  accustom  the  pupil  to  read  alge- 
braic expressions  in  such  a  way  as  at  once  to  indicate  their  meaning ; 
as,  a  -h  6,  the  sum  of  a  and  b  ;  a—h,  the  difference  between  a  and  h  ; 
a  X  hy  the  product  of  n  and  h,  etc.  Exercises  in  finding  the  numerical 
value  of  expressions,  when  particular  values  are  attributed  to  the  repre- 
sentative letters,  will  greatly  aid  in  accomplishing  this  result.     Thus, 

find  the  value  of  —    —  6",  when  a  =  3,  b  =  2,  c  =  l,  etc. 
c 

2.  Easy  problems  in  arithmetic,  the  solutions  of  which  may  be  facil- 
itated by  the  use  of  equations,  the  latter  to  be  of  the  simplest  form,  and 
involving  only  an  application  of  the  pupils'  acquired  knowledge  of 
symbols.  This  will  at  once  show  the  pupils  the  value  of  the  algebraic 
notation,  and  will  interest  them  in  the  study  of  the  subject,  as  being  of 
practical  value. 


142  PERMISSIBLE   SUBJECTS. 

3.  Mental  practice  in  solving  such  problems,  by  means  of  equations. 
Most  of  the  text-books  in  use  will  afford  a  sufficient  variety. 

4.  Practice  in  solving  equations  of  this  character ;  each  equation  to 

X  X 

be  read  previously  in  the  form  of  a  problem  ;  as  — =  10,  which 

3         8 
may  be  read :     What  number  is  that  one-third  of  which  exceeds  one- 
eighth  of  it  by  10  ? 

The  method  of  clearing  equations  of  fractions  and  of  transposition 
should  be  taught,  not  by  applying  mechanical  rules,  but  as  processes  of 
analytical  reasoning.  Thus,  in  the  equation  above  given,  the  pupil 
will  easily  be  made  to  perceive,  that  the  multiplication  of  both  members 
by  24  will  produce  an  equation  without  fractions. 

5.  After  the  pupils  have  acquired  a  clear  idea  of  the  nature  and  use 
of  equations,  and  some  expertness  in  operating  with  those  of  a  simple 
character,  those  of  a  more  difficult  or  complex  form  should  be  pre- 
sented— giving  occasion  for  the  use  of  the  operations  of  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division,  which  can  then  be  more  exhaus- 
tively treated. 

6.  The  nature  of  literal  equations  or  general  expressions  should  then 
be  taught,  and  examjiles  be  given,  some  of  which  may  be  made  to  in- 
volve an  application  of  all  these  processes.  Such  as  the  following  are 
suggested : 

X  4-  a        X  —  a 

(1.) =d 

b  c 

X  —  a        X  —  b 

(3.) + =  2 

b  a 

X  —  a-       X  —  b^ 

(3.) =  0 

b  a 

(4.) =1 

a  —  b         a  +  b 
(a  +  b)  X       (a  —  b)  X 

a  —  b  a  +  b 

Such  equations  as  the  above  involve  much  useful  practice,  not  only 
in  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying,  and  dividing,  but  also  in  fractions 
and  in  factoring.     The  latter  should  receive  careful  attention. 

6.  The  method  of  solving  equations  containing  more  than  one  un- 
known quantity — involving  the  various  methods  of  elimination—  should 


PERMISSIBLE   SUBJECTS.  143 

follow  this,  and  sufficient  practice  in  the  sohition  of  problems  should  also 
be  afforded.  The  latter,  with  the  preparation  herein  indicated,  may  bo 
made  a  most  important  aid  in  training  the  mind  to  careful  and  exact 
analysis,  and  logical  reasoning — perhaps  the  most  important  object, 
generally,  of  the  study  of  this  subject. 

Note. — This  syllabus  is  not  designed  to  be  entirely  exhaustive,  but 
to  afford  hints  as  to  the  order  and  method  of  presenting  the  most  im- 
portant topics. 

ELEMENTS   OF  PLANE-GEOMETRY. 

The  study  of  geometry,  properly  pursued,  is  of  great 
advantage  in  several  respects:  it  trains  the  pupil  in  habits 
of  careful  observations  and  of  accurate  e.xpression  ;  devel- 
ops methods  of  close  and  critical  reasoning,  and  furnishes 
the  scholar  with  many  principles  essential  to  the  study  of 
mensuration,  and  of  great  practical  value  in  the  various 
departments  of  drawing. 

In  presenting  this  subject  to  the  pupil  the  teacher 
should  be  very  careful  not  to  confine  the  attention  to  or 
dwell  unduly  upon  any  one  of  the  purposes  indicated 
above,  but  should,  by  variety  of  method,  combine  all  the 
advantages  to  be  gained  from  the  study  of  geometry. 

As  the  course  in  geometry  is  intended  to  be  of  a  strictly 
elementary  character,  it  is  essential  that  there  be  made  a 
careful  selection  of  those  propositions  that  are  of  a  funda- 
mental character,  or  of  general  practical  application,  and 
such  selection  should  be  the  basis  of  the  instruction.  The 
proper  selection  having  been  made  it  will  be  found  that, 
with  accurately  drawn  figures,  many  of  the  propositions 
will  be  discovered  by  the  pupils,  and,  after  a  little  prac- 
tice, will  be  accurately  stated  ;  the  drawing  should,  as  far 
as  practicable,  be  done  by  the  pupils  themselves.  Simi- 
larly, simple  geometrical  constructions  can  be  made  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  propositions  thus  discovered.  Finally, 
some  of  the  simpler  demonstrations  may  be  elicited. 


144  PERMISSIBLE  SUBJECTS. 

To  encourage  the  slower  pupils,  and  to  keep  the  body 
of  the  class  from  depending  upon  the  few  more  precocious 
minds,  it  will  at  times  be  found  advisable  to  have  each 
scholar  draw  the  figure  upon  a  slate,  and  write  whatever 
geometrical  fact  he  may  see  ;  for  instance,  if  isosceles  trian- 
gles be  drawn,  many  of  the  scholars  will  readily  perceive 
the  equality  of  certain  angles.  Similar  practice  may  be 
given  in  constructions  and  demonstrations. 

The  selected  propositions  that  have  been  found  too 
difficult  for  consideration  in  the  preliminary  discussion  of 
the  subject  may  be  taught  with  the  aid  of  an  elementary 
text-book.  In  using  this  it  is  essential  that  the  theorem 
be  carefully  analyzed ;  the  diagram  be  drawn  in  obedience 
to  the  conditions  of  the  theorem— not  in  imitation  of  the 
figure  in  the  text-book  ;  and  that  the  demonstration  be  a 
conclusion  from  things  clearly  seen  and  correctly  stated  by 
the  pupil  reciting — not  a  mere  repetition  of  words,  how- 
ever well  committed  to  memory. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

1.  After  the  forms  required  in  single-entry  book-keeping 
liave  been  briefly  taught,  the  nature  of  double-entry  book- 
keeping should  be  explained,  by  showing  the  relation  of 
dehit  and  credit,  by  means  of  which  one  set  of  entries  may 
be  made  to  verify  the  accuracy  of  another. 

2.  The  classification  of  accounts  should  be  followed  by 
an  explanation  of  the  three  books — Day-Book,  Journal, 
and  Ledger.  Journalizing  simple  entries  in  the  Day-Book 
should  then  be  taught ;  and  sufficient  exercises  be  given  to 
impart  readiness  and  accuracy  in  the  process.  Then  by 
keeping  a  simple  and  brief  set  of  accounts,  the  pupils  will 
understand  the  whole  theory  and  process,  and  will  also  be- 
come sufficiently  expert  in  their  application. 


PERMISSIBLE   SUBJECTS.  145 

3.  All  the  common  husiiuss  foimis  should  be  taught ;  as 
the  form  of  bills,  receipts,  bank  checks,  promissory  notes, 
bills  of  exchange,  invoices,  etc.  Business  correspondence 
should  also  receive  attention ;  that  pupils  should  become 
expert  in  writing  a  good  business  letter  is  of  great  impoi-t- 
ance.  In  every  exercise  fluency,  legibility,  and  grace  in 
penmanship  should  be  carefully  attended  to.  Both  quantity 
and  quality  should  be  insisted  on, 

ASTRONOMY. 

1.  Astronomy,  like  the  other  permissible  subjects,  when 
selected  and  taken  as  one  of  the  studies  of  a  class,  is  to  be 
examined  and  reported  upon  by  the  Principal,  as  in  the 
case  of  studies  regularly  prescribed  for  all  schools. 

2.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  chief  purpose  of 
this  study  in  the  Grammar  Schools  is,  to  teach  the  pupil 
to  look  intelligently  upon  the  heavens;  not  with  the  min- 
ute and  profound  knowledge  of  the  astronomer,  bnt  with 
such  knowledge  as  is  readily  attainable  even  by  the  young 
mind,  when  its  inspection  of  the  common  phenomena  of 
the  heavens  is  properlj^  supervised  and  directed. 

3.  Nor  should  the  teacher  fail,  in  connection  with  this 
instruction,  incidentally  to  impress  upon  the  pupil,  that, 
in  studying  the  laws  and  facts  of  the  universe,  he  is  con- 
templating the  works  of  a  beneficent  Creator,  infinite  in 
wisdom  and  power.  No  subject  is  so  well  qualified  as  as- 
tronomj'  to  give  just  ideas  in  this  respect,  and,  while  pei-- 
forming  a  peculiar  and  most  important  otHce  in  the  train- 
ing and  development  of  the  intellectual  powers,  to  exalt 
the  understanding  and  give  elevation  and  tone  to  the 
whole  character. 

4.  A  syllabus  of  leading  points  is  subjoined.     It  will  be 

7 


146  PERMISSIBLE   SUBJECTS. 

seen  that  nearly  all  of  these  may  be  readily  taught  without 
astronomical  instruments  or  apparatus  other  than  a  globe 
and  a  blackboard.  The  highly  interesting  results  of  in- 
strumental observation  should  be  read  in  connection  with 
the  pupils'  own  observations,  but  no  time  should  be  spent 
in  the  endeavor  to  commit  to  memory  the  precise  mathe- 
matical and  other  results.  Just  ideas  of  the  magnitude 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  of  the  interplanetary  and 
interstellar  spaces  may  readily  be  retained  from  careful 
reading. 

5.  As  in  the  oral  lessons  of  the  lower  grades,  it  is  to  be 
expressly  understood  that  it  is  not  expected  that  the  whole 
of  the  subjoined  syllabus  will  be  taught,  but  that  the  Prin- 
cipal will  make  such  selection  of  topics  and  parts  of  topics 
as  he  may  think  expedient.  The  only  special  conditions 
2a'e,  first,  that  as  far  as  time  and  opportunity  will  allow,  the 
pupils  shall  be  led  to  observe  for  themselves  the  most 
simple  and  obvious  phenomena  of  the  heavens  ;  and,  second^ 
that  a  record  of  topics  considered  be  kept  to  show  progress. 

Syllabits. 

The  Heavens. — Apparent  shape  of  (an  illusion). — Things  we  see  there 
— clouds,  sun,  moon,  stars,  comets,  meteors,  aurora.  Horizon,  the  circu- 
lar hase  of  the  visible  heavens — where  they  seem  to  rest  upon  the  earth. 
Apparent  daily  motion  of  the  whole  heavens — easily  seen  by  different 
positions  of  stars  and  moon  at  early  and  late  hours  of  a  winter's  evening. 
Notice  the  circular  and  oblique  character  of  these  motions.  Some  stars 
move  very  slowly  and  make  very  small  circles — this  easily  leads  to  dis- 
covery of  the  nearly  motionless  Pole  star  ;  it  never  sets  (to  us).  A  very 
few  conspicuous  and  neighboring  constellations  (Great  Bear,  Little 
Bear,  Swan).  How  to  recognize  the  Pole  star.  How  to  know  which 
way  north  is.  Show  that  the  sun  from  its  rising  to  its  setting  has  similar 
motions.  Highest  daily  point  of  sun — noon — meridian  (through  this 
point  and  noi'th  and  south). 

The  Earth. — Shape,  how  known — ships,  mountainous  islands,  shadow 
on   moon  in  lunar  eclipse  (all    these    known  to  the    learned  among 


PERMISSIBLE   SUBJECTS.  147 

the  ancients).  Size,  motion  around  sun,  a  year,  meaning  of  orbit. 
Motion  on  axis,  known  from  apparent  daily  motions  of  stars,  etc. 
"What  a  day  is.  Inclination  of  axis  to  plane  of  orbit  (indispensable  for  ex- 
plaining the  seasons),  23^".  Tropics,  polar  circles,  parallels,  zones,  lati- 
tude, longitude. 

The  Sun. — Varying  points  and  times  of  rising  and  setting — correspond- 
ing variation  of  length  of  day  and  night — its  connection  with  the  seasons. 
AVhen  it  is  noon.  Variation  of  clock  time  with  difference  of  longitude  — 
examples  given.  What  a  clock  is.  A  good  clock  more  regular  than  the 
sun.  Why.  Cses  of  a  noon-mark  and  the  table  Equation  of  Time  in 
almanac  (useful  and  easily  shown  in  class-room). 

Solar  influences — brief  reference  to  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  to 
currents  in  atmosphere  and  oceans,  etc. 

Distance  of  the  sun — magnitude. 

What  the  telescope  tells  us  of  the  sun — (briefly)  read. 

Solar  System. — Brief  general  outline  of  its  composition  and  arrange- 
ment.    Use  a  diagram. 

77ie  Moon. — Phases.  Why.  New  moon,  where  first  seen.  Eastward 
motion  in  orbit — the  word  month.  The  "old  moon  in  the  new  moon's 
arms" — why  the  dark  side  is  then  visible  (effect  of  "earth-shine"). 
Eclipses  lunar  and  solar  (briefly).  Lunar  influences — tides — pseudo- 
scientific  and  superstitious  notions  about  the  moon's  influences.  Distance 
and  size  of  the  moon.     What  the  telescope  tells  about  the  moon  (read). 

The  Planets. — How  known — why  so  called.  Fixed  stars -why  so 
called.  Names  of  chief  planets — make  use  of  almanac  to  identify  them. 
How  they  severally  look  to  the  naked  eye.  Morning  star,  evening 
star.     What  the  telescope  tells  us  of  the  chief  planets  (read). 

Fixed  Stars. — A  few  general  ideas  in  regard  to  their  enormous  dis- 
tances— magnitude — how  known  to  be  suns.  What  the  telescope  tells 
of  their  number. 

The  following  should  from  time  to  time  receive  brief  attention  and 
explanation,  so  much  at  least  as  to  insure  the  pupil's  having  some  in- 
telligent ideas  concerning  them.  Comets,  Meteors,  Milky  Way,  Aurora, 
Zodiacal  Constellations,  Zodiacal  Light.  Importance  of  Astronomy  to 
Commerce. 


A48        INSTRUCTION   IN   GERMAN   AND   FRENCH. 


COURSE  OF   INSTRUCTION   IN  THE   GERMAN 
AND  FRENCH  LANGUAGES. 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GERMAN  LANGUAGE. 
FOURTH    GRADE. 

1.  The  Alphahet. — Both  printed  and  script,  with  exer- 
cises in  reading  and  writing. 

2.  Graimnar. — Declension  of  tlie  Definite  and  Indefinite 
Articles  and  the  Noun ;  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses 
of  sein  and  haben.  The  cardinal  numbers  from  one  to  one 
hundred. 

3.  Translaiions. — Both  oral  and  written,  of  simple  sen- 
tences, including  examples  under  the  rules  learned  in  the 
grammatical  lessons  of  this  grade,  as  well  as  subject,  pre- 
dicate, object,  and  simple  adjuncts. 

4.  Colloquial  Eicercises. 

THIRD    GRADE. 

1.  Exercises  in  Reading  and  Writing,  continued. 

2.  Grammar. — Declension  of  Adjectives  and  Pronouns. 
The  active  voice  of  the  weak  conjugation. 

3.  Translations. — Oral  and  written,  including  examples 
under  the  rules  of  the  grammar  lessons  of  this  grade,  as 
well  as  of  prepositions ;  also  easy  compound  sentences. 

4.  Colloquial  Exercises. 

SECOND    GRADE. 

1.  Exercises  in  Reading  and  "Writing,  continued. 

2.  Grammar. — The  passive  voice  of  the  weak  conjuga- 
tion.    The  principal  parts  of  strong  and  irregular  verbs. 


INSTRUCTION   IN   GERMAN   AND    FRENCH.         149 

3.  Translations. — Oral  and  written,  of  sentences  afford- 
ing practice  in  tlie  application  of  the  several  tenses  of  the 
verb,  and  in  compound  sentences. 

4.  Readiwj. — From  a  German  Reader,  with  translations 
into  English,  and  exercise  in  etymology. 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE. 
FOURTH    GRADE. 

1.  Reading. — Rnles  of  Pronunciation  and  the  accents, 

2.  Grammar. — The  Definite  and  Indefinite  xirticles ; 
Xouns,  formation  of  the  plural ;  Adjectives,  formation  of 
the  feminine  gender  and  comparisons  ;  Auxiliary  verbs 
avoir  and  etre.     First  conjugation  of  regular  verbs. 

3.  Translations. — Oral  and  written,  including  exercises 
on  the  grammatical  rules  taught  in  the  grade ;  also  the  use 
of  nouns  in  a  partitive  sense,  the  place  of  nouns  in  a  ques- 
tion, and  the  form  of  negative  sentences. 

4.  Colloquial  Exercises  adapted  to  the  grade. 

THIRD    GRADE. 

1.  Reading  and  Pronunciation,  continued. 

2.  G-rammar. — Pronouns ;  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
conjugations  of  the  regular  verbs ;  some  of  the  principal 
irregular  verbs;  adverbs. 

3.  Translations. — Oral  and  written,  on  the  grammatical 
rules  taught  in  this  grade. 

4.  Colloquial  Exercises  adapted  to  the  grade. 

SECOND    GRADE. 

1.  Reading  and  Pronunciation,  continued. 

2.  Grammar. — Regular  verbs  reviewed  ;  irregular  verbs 


150        INSTRUCTION   IN   GERMAN   AND   FRENCH. 

continued ;  the  principal  rules  on  the  use  of  moods  and 
tenses. 

3.  Translations  from  a  French  Reader ;  also  oral  and 
written  translations  in  the  grammatical  rules  of  the  grade. 

4.  Colloquial  Exercises  adapted  to  the  grade. 

5.  Easy  Comjpositions. 


INSTRUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 

1.  The  course  of  instruction  in  German  and  French  has 
been  framed  with  a  view  to  impart  to  the  pupils  of  the 
liigher  grades  of  the  Grammar  Schools  a  rudimentary 
knowledge  of  these  two  languages,  as  well  as  to  enable  the 
pupils  to  acquire,  by  comparison,  a  better  insight  into  the 
structure  of  the  English  language. 

2.  Pronunciation  and  Reading. — As  the  rules  of  pro- 
nunciation in  these  languages  differ  very  widely  from 
those  that  prevail  in  English,  it  is  of  importance,  from 
the  beginning,  to  direct  the  pupils'  attention  to  these  dif- 
ferences. They  should  be  required  to  practise  as  soon  as 
possible  all  the  peculiar  sounds  of  the  foreign  language ; 
and  this  practice  should  be  continued  in  every  recitation 
until  they  are  able  to  pronounce  these  sounds  with  consid- 
erable facility. 

3.  It  is  much  better  to  practise  the  sounds  as  they 
occur  in  words,  than  to  practise  separately  as  phonic  exer- 
cises. The  pupils  will  more  easily  acquire  the  sounds  of 
the  German  u  and  eh  by  pronouncing  the  word  Biicher  than 
by  a  continuous  repetition  of  these  as  separate  sounds. 

4.  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  teacher 
that  the  method  of  learning  a  foreign  language  should 
approximate  as  nearly  as  possible  to  that  by  which  the 


INSTRUCTIONS   IN   GERMAN   AND   FRENCH.      151 

mother  tongue  is  acquired ;  and  tiiat  the  acquisition  of  a 
correct  pronunciation  will  be  sooner  made  by  imitating  the 
sound,  as  pronounced  by  the  teacher,  than  by  memorizing 
any  set  rules. 

5.  Grammai'. — Care  should  be  taken  not  to  waste  time 
in  the  needless  memorizing  of  grammatical  rules.  A  fa- 
miliarity with  the  principal  inflections  in  the  different 
parts  of  speech  will  suffice  to  enable  the  scholars  to  un- 
derstand the  reading  lessons,  and  to  practise  easy  colloquial 
exercises. 

6.  Translation. — The  translation  of  simple  sentences 
into  English  should  be  commenced  as  soon  as  possible,  as 
this  exercise  affords  valuable  practice  in  the  application 
of  the  grammatical  knowledge  acquired.  The  translation 
should  at  first  be  entirely  literal,  to  be  followed  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  idiomatic  expressions  of  the  two  languages, 
as  far  as  they  occur  in  the  lesson.  This  practice  becomes 
especially  im}>ortant  in  the  Second  Grade,  in  which  a  Read- 
er is  to  be  employed,  and  in  which  the  pieces  to  be  trans- 
lated are  longer  and  more  difficult.  Written  translations 
should  be  frequently  required,  as  this  promotes  care  and 
precision  in  rendering  the  meaning,  and  besides  is  particu- 
larly valuable  for  the  training  which  it  affords  in  English 
composition. 

7.  Colloquial  Exercises. — These  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance in  the  acquisition  of  a  foreign  language.  The 
teacher,  almost  from  the  first,  by  a  simple  series  of  object 
lessons,  can  familiarize  the  pupils  with  many  of  the  com- 
mon colloquial  forms  of  expression  ;  and  this  practice  can 
be  continued  in  the  use  of  graded  exercises  so  that  in  a  short 
time  the  ear  and  the  tongue  of  the  pupils  will  become  fa- 
miliarized with  the  words  of  the  foreign  language  and  a 
large  number  of  their  most  necessary  combinations. 


152        INSTEUCTIONS   IN   GERMAN   AND   FRENCH. 

8.  Etymology. — As  the  German  language  is  nearly  akin 
to  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  the  French  language  to  the  Latin 
element  of  English,  there  is  for  almost  every  word,  both 
of  the  German  and  the  French  language,  some  word  in 
English  that  may  be  traced  to  the  same  root,  though  its 
meaning  may  be  considerably  modified.  In  most  cases 
this  affinity  is  so  striking  that  a  simple  reference  to  it 
will  be  all  that  the  pupil  needs  to  perceive  it.  In  other 
cases  more  care  is  required  to  enable  the  pupil  fully  to 
understand  the  relationship  of  the  words  and  their  mean- 
ings, especially  when  the  latter  have  become  changed. 
All  such  exercises  will  be  found  very  valuable  and  inter- 
esting, as  the  pupil  will  recognize  in  German  and  French 
roots  and  afiixes  old  etymological  acquaintances,  made  in 
the  study  of  English  in  preceding  grades.  The  study  of 
the  relationship  of  English  with  the  foreign  language  will 
aid  very  greatlj'  in  giving  to  the  English-speaking  pupil 
a  knowledge  of  his  mother  tongue. 


GENERAL  REGULATIONS 

EELATIYE  TO  GKAMMAK  SCHOOLS. 

Size  of  Class. — No  class  shall  contain  more  than  sixty 
pupils ;  this  is  a  very  important  restriction,  and  should 
be  strictly  observed  by  every  Principal.  (See  "  Seating 
Capacity,"  on  a  subsequent  page.) 

Progress  of  Classes. — Whenever  it  is  found  that  a  class 
has  advanced  further  in  one  or  two  subjects  of  its  grade 
than  it  has  in  others,  the  Principal  of  the  school  may  di- 
rect the  teacher  to  devote  less  time  to  the  subjects  in 
which  the  class  has  thus  advanced,  and  to  give  more  time 
to  the  subjects  in  which  the  class  has  made  the  least  prog- 
ress :  provided,  however,  that  the  law  prescribing  the 
minimum  time  per  week  be  strictly  complied  with.  By 
this  means  the  grade  of  the  class  may  be  equalized  in  all 
its  studies. 

The  Course  of  Study  for  one  grade  must  be  completed 
and  thoroughly  reviewed,  and  the  fp\\^\\& promoted,  before 
they  can  enter  upon  any  part  of  the  Course  of  Study  of 
the  next  higher  grade. 

In  each  grade,  certain  subjects,  such  as  Arithmetic,  Ge- 
ography, Drawing,  and  Oral  Lessons,  may  be  profitably 
divided  into  four  parts,  to  be  assigned  to  as  many  suc- 
cessive months  ;  the  work  of  the  fifth  month  to  include  a 
careful  reconsideration  of  the  essential  points.     This  plan, 


154  GENERAL   REGULATIONS. 

if  adopted,  will  be  understood  not  to  supersede  the  "  brief 
monthly  reviews  "  specifically  called  for  by  the  Course  of 
Study. 

1.  Order  of  Exercises,  etc. — In  the  several  grades  the 
minimum  time  for  Language  Lessons,  per  week,  shall  be 
5  houi's ;  Arithmetic,  3  hours  ;  Penmanship,  2  hours ;  Ge- 
ography, 1  hour  ;  Drawing,  40  minutes  ;  History  (Grades 
1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5),  40  minutes. 

The  remaining  time  per  week  to  be  distributed  at  the 
discretion  of  the  Principal. 

2.  Opening  Exercises,  15  minutes;  noon  intermission, 
60  minutes. 

Opening  Exercises  to  commence  punctually  at  9  o'clock 
A.M.,  and  dismissal  at  3  o'clock  p.m. 

Ko  class  exercise  shall  take  place  before  9  o'clock  a.m., 
or  after  3  o'clock  p.m. 

3.  Reading. — In  the  reading  lessons  of  each  grade  the 
pupils  shall  be  required  to  state  in  their  own  language  the 
subject-matter  of  the  lesson.  Prose  and  verse  recitations 
by  the  pupils  in  the  school  shall  be  selected  from  books 
upon  the  supply  list  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

4.  Use  of  Pencils  and  Pens. — The  pupils  not  to  be  al- 
lowed to  write  with  short  pencils ;  in  all  the  grades  par- 
ticular attention  to  be  given  to  the  proper  manner  of 
holding  the  pen,  and  the  position  at  the  desk.  The  exer- 
cises in  each  grade  to  be  such  as  are  required  to  give  ease 
and  rapidity,  as  well  as  accuracy  in  style.  Blackboard  in- 
struction to  be  given  in  each  grade.  Pupils  of  the  first 
five  grades  to  be  supplied  with  blank  books  for  dictation 
exercises,  which  should  be  given  at  least  once  a  week. 

5.  Composition. — Compositions  shall  be  written  once  a 
week  in  all  grammar  classes,  in  presence  of  the  teachers, 
upon  subjects  connected  with  the  oral  lessons  of  the  grades, 


GENERAL   REGULATIONS.  155 

or  upon  subjects  read  and  explained  in  the  class-room  ; 
and  these  compositions  shall  be  criticised  and  rewritten. 
Home  work  shall  be  limited  to  the  First  Grade. 

6.  Dictation  and  Connection  of  Language. — Exercises 
in  writing  sentences  and  paragraphs,  from  dictation,  shall 
be  given  in  each  grade,  and  the  pupils  in  all  the  grades 
shall  be  trained  in  the  correction  of  language,  and  taught 
to  avoid  common  errors  of  speech. 

7.  Arithmetic. — Eapid  calculation  in  the  simple  rules 
of  Arithmetic  should  be  practised  by  all  the  pupils  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest  grade. 

8.  Yocal  Music. — Instruction  in  singing  shall  be  given 
to  the  pupils  in  every  grade,  except  the  first  grade  of  bovs. 
The  music  used  shall  be  such  as  is  found  in  the  books 
contained  in  the  supply  list  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

9.  Sewioig. — Instruction  in  sewing  may  be  given  to  the 
pupils  in  the  Female  Grammar  Schools.  (By-Laws,  §  151, 
page  255,  Manual  ISStt.) 

Lessons  and  Recitations. — Xo  lesson  shall  be  given  to  a 
pupil  to  be  learned  out  of  school  until  it  shall  have  been 
sufficiently  explained  and  illustrated  by  the  teacher  to  the 
class ;  nor  shall  the  lessons  be  such  as  to  require  a  period 
of  study  each  day,  in  the  case  of  a  child  of  ordinary  ca- 
pacity, longer  than  two  hours.  Exercises  in  grammatical 
analysis  and  parsing,  and  written  and  mental  arithmetic, 
shall  not  be  assigned  for  home-study,  except  to  pupils  of 
the  First  Grade.   (By-Laws,  §  155,  page  262,  Manual  1884.) 

In  every  class,  however  well  graded,  the  pupils  will  dif- 
fer much  in  age,  health,  mental  capacity,  and  home  advan- 
tages. A  correct  and  judicious  classification  by  the  Prin- 
cipal will  reduce  this  inequality  to  a  minimum ;  but  there 
will  still  remain  a  wide  field  for  the  exercise  of  discrimi- 
nation, care,  and  caution  on  the  part  of  the  class  teacher. 


166  GENERAL   REGULATIONS. 

The  lessons  should,  in  all  respects,  be  adapted  to  the  aver- 
age ability  of  the  pupils  of  the  class ;  but,  even  beyond 
this,  some  allowance  will  often  have  to  be  made  in  the 
case  of  pupils  of  inferior  mental  capacity  or  inferior  op- 
portunities for  home-study.  Teachers  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  one  great  object  of  home-study  is  to  train  the  pu- 
pils to  self- exertion — to  give  them  the  ability  to  depend 
upon  their  own  efforts  as  students,  and  by  degrees  to  dis- 
pense with  the  aid  of  a  teacher.  It  is,  therefore,  of  su- 
preme importance  to  avoid  everything  that  will  discourage, 
or  deprive  of  self-reliance  ;  and  nothing  has  a  stronger  ten- 
dency in  this  direction  than  the  imposition  of  excessive 
tasks. 

Teachers  are  especially  admonished  to  be  considerate 
toward  pupils  of  a  delicate  constitution,  an  over-excitable 
brain  and  nervous  system,  or  in  temporary  ill-health. 
Many  children  of  this  class  are  precocious  in  mental 
activity  and  exceedingly  ambitious  to  excel ;  and  the 
gi'eatest  care  is  required  to  prevent  them  from  injuring 
themselves  by  an  inordinate  devotion  to  books  and  study. 

The  length  of  the  tasks  imposed  should  be  most  care- 
fully scrutinized  and  adjusted.  The  practice  of  assigning 
a  jixed  number  of  words,  lines,  paragraphs,  pages,  or  ex- 
amples, without  a  minute  inspection  of  their  nature  or 
contents,  is  often  accompanied  with  disastrous  results. 
The  pupils  are  wearied  and  discouraged  ;  and  the  parents, 
finding  the  work  of  the  school-room  transferred  to  the 
home-circle,  lose  all  confidence  in  the  judgment  and  ability 
of  the  teacher. 

The  teacher  should  ascertain  the  methods  which  pupils 
employ  in  home-study.  Verbatim  study  is  to  be  dis- 
couraged. While  making  the  necessary  preliminary  ex- 
planations, a  brief  abstract  of  the  leading  points  should  be 


GENERAL   REGULATIONS.  157 

written  upon  the  blackboard,  and  made  the  basis  of  the 
i-ecitation.  This  will  do  much  to  induce  a  rational  method 
in  study,  and  prevent  a  slavish  adherence  to  the  text. 

Unless  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  details  of  the  text- 
book, the  teacher  needs  special  and  renewed  preparation 
quite  as  much  as  the  pupils.  Without  this  he  will  not 
succeed.  The  recitations  should  be  spirited  exercises. 
The  questions  should  be  as  definite  as  possible.  The 
teacher  should  carefully  avoid  stating  in  the  question  any 
of  those  facts  or  principles  that  should  be  given  by  the 
pupil.  The  habit  of  repeating  the  pupil's  answer  should 
be  avoided.  Pupils  should  be  invariably  required  to  use 
natural  and  proper  tones  in  recitation,  to  enunciate  dis- 
tinctly, and  to  avoid  errors  in  speech.  If  this  be  not 
done,  the  special  lessons  of  the  reading-book  or  the  gram- 
mar will  be  of  little  avail  to  break  up  the  pernicious 
habits  of  speech  which  the  teacher  has  himself,  by  his 
neglect,  assisted  to  fix. 

The  teacher  should  advise  with  his  pupils  as  to  their 
hours  and  opportunities  for  home-study.  Household  du- 
ties, cramped  and  noisy  homes,  and  bad  light,  no  doubt 
greatly  interfere  in  many  cases.  These  should  be  as  far 
as  possible  ascertained  and  allowed  for.  On  account  of 
the  tendency  to  myopia  caused  by  studying  by  artificial 
light,  very  small  print  should  be  entirely  excluded  from 
home-lessons.  The  many  hours  of  confinement  in  the 
crowded  class-room,  and  tlie  long-continued  and  close  at- 
tention required  there,  make  mental  rest  and  relaxation, 
with  some  kind  of  physical  exercise,  indispensable  to 
growing  boys  and  girls.  The  teacher  should  advise  that 
these  come  before  home-study. 

Reviews. — In  connection  with  each  new  lesson,  such  a 
review  of  previous  lessons  in  the  same  subject  should  be 


158  GENERAL   REGULATIONS. 

had  as  will  cause  the  pupils  properly  to  associate  the  facts 
previously  learned  and  those  of  the  new  lesson. 

Brief  reviews  of  the  lessons  on  each  subject  should  be 
had  on  Friday  of  each  week. 

On  the  last  Friday  of  each  month  there  shall  be,  in 
every  class,  a  general  review  of  all  the  studies  of  the  pre- 
vious month,  at  which  review  all  text-books  shall  be  laid 
aside  by  teachers  and  pupils.  (By-Laws,  §  156,  page  262, 
Manual  1884.) 

Physical  Training. — The  pupils  should  be  exercised 
daily,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  expand  the  lungs,  develop 
the  muscles,  and  impart  an  easy  and  graceful  carriage  to 
the  body.  Calisthenic  exercises,  to  the  utmost  practicable 
extent,  should  be  employed  for  the  attainment  of  these 
objects.  Let  the  windows  be  opened,  both  at  the  top  and 
at  the  bottom,  for  two  or  three  minutes,  while  the  pupils 
stand  and  sit  several  times  in  succession,  and  also  while 
they  engage  in  other  physical  exercises.  Due  attention 
should  be  given  to  securing  a  good  ventilation  of  the 
class  room,  but  all  improper  use  of  the  windows  and  ex- 
posure of  pupils  to  drafts  while  sitting  must  be  carefully 
avoided.     (See  "  Physical  Education.") 

Discipline. — The  children  should  never  he  compelled  to 
sit  without  employment  J  or  the  mind,  the  hands,  or  the  hody. 
As  a  means  of  preserving  good  order  in  the  class,  attract 
the  attention  of  the  pupils  by  introducing  new  subjects,  by 
changing  the  manner  of  giving  the  lesson,  or  by  allowing 
individual  pupils  to  take  a  special  part  in  the  lesson  exer- 
cises. 

They  should  be  taught  cleanliness  by  being  led  to  ob- 
serve what  it  is  to  be  cleanly ;  and  to  be  truthful  and  obe- 
dient, by  perceiving  examples  of  these  virtues ;  and  to 
avoid  all  bad  habits,  by  being  led  to  look  upon  them  with 


GENERAL   REGULATIONS.  1.59 

dislike.  They  should  be  led  to  do  right  by  encouragement 
rather  than  driven  to  do  so  by  fear.  Judicious  praise  is 
more  efficient  than  scolding.  (See  "Government  and 
Discipline  "  for  instructions.) 

Manners  and  Morals. — Such  instruction  should  be 
given  daily  to  the  pupils  of  all  the  grades  as  will  foster  a 
spirit  of  kindness  and  courtesy  toward  one  another,  a  feel- 
ing of  respect  toward  parent  and  teacher,  and  a  love  of 
cleanliness,  order,  law,  and  truth.  (See  "  Moral  Educa- 
tion," page  15  ;  also  "  Government  and  Discipline,"  page 
11,  for  instructions.) 

School  Sessions. — The  several  schools  shall  be  opened  at 
nine  o'clock  a.m.,  and  the  sessions  shall  be  continued  until 
three  o'clock  p.m.,  with  an  intermission  of  one  hour  at 
noon,  when  the  pupils  may  leave  school.  An  intermis- 
sion, not  to  exceed  twenty  minutes,  may  also  be  given 
during  the  morning  sessions. 

Ko  school  shall  be  dismissed,  except  by  special  authority 
of  the  Trustees,  sooner  than  three  o'clock  p.m.,  except  that 
in  case  of  very  wet  or  stormy  weather  the  Principal  may 
detain  the  pupils  in  school  between  the  hours  of  twelve 
and  one  o'clock  ;  but  in  such  cases  the  school  shall  be  dis- 
missed for  the  day  at  two  o'clock  p.m. 

Meritorious  pupils,  as  a  reward,  may  be  permitted  to 
leave  school  one  hour  earlier  on  Friday  of  each  week.  In 
no  case  shall  any  school  be  dismissed  before  three  o'clock 
P.M.,  except  as  provided  in  Section  6-i.  (By-Laws,  §  63, 
page  147,  Manual  1884.) 

Vacatio7is  and  Holidays. — The  vacations  and  holidays 
allowed  in  the  schools  in  the  several  wards  shall  be  as 
follows : 

Every  Saturday  throughout  the  year  ;  the  day  commonly 
known  as  Good  Friday ;  the  twenty-second  day  of  Febru- 


160  GENERAL   REGULATIONS. 

ary;  the  fourth  day  of  July;  any  day  appointed  by  the  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States  or  the  Governor  of  the  State  for 
a  public  fast  or  thanksgiving,  and  the  day  thereafter ;  the 
twenty -fifth  day  of  December,  the  second  day  of  January, 
and  the  intermediate  days  ;  the  thirtieth  day  of  May  ;  elec- 
tion day  ;  the  day  next  following  any  day  above  specified, 
when  such  latter  day  shall  be  Sunday,  and  the  interval 
between  the  third  of  July  and  the  second  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember.   (By-Laws,  part  of  §  63,  page  148,  Manual  1884.) 

Reading  the  Bible. — All  the  schools  of  this  city  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Board  of  Education  shall  be  opened 
with  reading  a  portion  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  without  note 
or  comment.     (By-Laws,  §  134,  page  208,  Manual  1884.) 

Doors  to  he  Unfastened. — And  all  modes  of  egress, 
including  the  visitors'  doors,  shall  be  left  unfastened  dur- 
ing school  hours.  (By-Laws,  §  61,  part  of  subdivision  2, 
page  140,  Manual  1884.) 

Pupils  Micst  he  Residents  of  the  City. — No  person  other 
than  an  actual  resident  of  the  city  of  New  York  shall  be 
allowed  to  attend  the  Normal  College  or  any  school  under 
the  control  of  this  Board.  A  boarding  and  lodging,  by  a 
minor,  within  the  city,  who  leaves  the  house  of  his  or  her 
parents  in  another  State  or  county,  merely  to  gain  an  op- 
portunity to  attend  the  Public  Schools,  does  not  constitute 
such  minor  a  resident  within  the  meaning  of  the  statute. 

Where  a  parent,  residing  in  another  State  or  in  another 
county,  sends  his  minor  child  to  the  city  of  New  York  for 
the  temporary  purpose  of  enabling  that  child  to  attend 
and  receive  the  benefits  of  the  Public  Schools,  in  nowise 
parting  with  his  control  over  such  child,  and  intending 
that  the  child  shall  return  to  him  as  soon  as  that  tempo- 
rary process  is  accomplished,  such  child,  although  not  i-e- 
turning  to  his  parents,  except  at  considerable  intervals  of 


GENERAL   REGULATIONS.  161 

time,  is  not  a  resident  in  tlie  city  of  New  York  within  the 
meaning  of  Section  35  of  the  Act  organizing  and  regulating 
the  free  school  system  within  the  city  of  New  York. 

Cases  will  occur  to  which  this  rule  may  not  be  applica- 
ble to  the  facts ;  in  such  case,  if  the  teacher  has  any  dif- 
ficulty in  determining  whether  the  child  be  a  resident,  it 
shall  be  referred  to  the  Board.  (By-Laws,  §  127,  page 
201,  Manual  1884.) 

Affes  of  Pupils. — All  children  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  twenty-one  years,  residing  in  the  city  and  county,  shall 
be  entitled  to  attend  any  of  the  common  schools  therein. 
(Statute  Laws,  §  1051,  page  36,  Manual  1884.) 

Vaccination. — No  pupil  shall  be  allowed  to  attend  any 
school,  nor  shall  any  teacher  be  employed  in  the  sauie, 
unless  such  pupil  or  teacher  has  been  vaccinated. 

Every  Principal  of  a  school  shall  require  satisfactory 
evidence  of  such  vaccination  as  a  requisite  for  the  admis- 
sion, employment,  or  continuance  of  a  pupil  or  teacher,  and 
the  Principal  shall  also  enter  in  the  register  of  tlie  school 
the  dates,  as  near  as  possible,  of  the  respective  vaccina- 
tions of  the  pupils  and  teachers,  and  shall  co-operate  with 
such  agents  of  the  Board  of  Health  as  may  be  authorized 
to  visit  the  schools  for  the  purpose  of  examining  and  vac- 
cinating the  pupils,  and  shall  require  a  revaccination  of  all 
pupils  ascertained  by  said  agents  of  the  Board  of  Health 
not  to  be  fully  protected  by  a  former  vaccination,  and  no 
pupil  refusing  to  be  so  revaccinated,  either  by  the  agent 
of  the  Board  of  Health,  or  by  the  physician  of  the  family 
to  which  he  or  she  may  belong,  shall  be  permitted  to  at- 
tend any  Public  School  until  such  requirement  is  fully 
complied  with. 

A  certificate  of  any  physician  in  good  standing  in  his 
profession,  stating  that  the  pupil  does  not  require  revac- 


163  GENERAL   REGULATIONS. 

cination,  shall  be  accepted  by  the  agents  of  the  Board  of 
Health  in  lieu  of  a  personal  examination.  (By-Laws,  § 
130,  page  206,  Manual  1884.) 

Contagious  Diseases. — Whenever  it  becomes  known  to 
the  Principal  or  teacher  in  charge  of  a  school  that  a  con- 
tagious disease  prevails  in  a  house  other  than  a  tenement 
in  which  a  child  or  children  attending  the  school  lives  or 
live,  such  child  or  children  shall  be  immediately  excluded 
from  the  school,  and  shall  not  be  readmitted  except  as 
elsewhere  in  this  article  provided. 

AVhenever  the  Principal  or  teacher  in  charge  ascertains 
that  a  contagious  disease  other  than  small  pox  or  typhus 
fever  exists  in  a  tenement-house,  but  on  one  floor  only, 
a  child  or  children  living  on  another  floor  of  the  same 
house  need  not  be  for  this  reason  excluded,  but  children 
thus  situated  must  be  questioned  daily  about  their  health 
and  that  of  their  respective  families  ;  and  must  be  sent 
home  at  the  first  symptom  of  illness,  or  the  first  intelli- 
gence of  contagion  in  their  families. 

But  if  a  contagious  disease  of  any  description  exists  on 
more  than  one  floor  of  a  tenement-house,  or  if  the  disease 
existing  on  only  one  floor  be  small-pox  or  typhus  fever, 
all  children  living  in  the  house  must  be  promptly  excluded 
from  school. 

Children  excluded  pursuant  to  the  above  rules  shall  not 
be  again  permitted  to  attend  school — 

In  case  of  scarlet  fever^  until  three  weeks  after  the 
heginning  of  the  last  case,  on  the  floor  or  in  the  house, 
according  to  whether  the  exclusion  has  applied  to  a  floor 
or  an  entire  house  under  the  above  rules. 

In  case  of  measles^  until  two  weeks  after  the  heginning 
of  the  last  case,  on  the  floor  or  in  the  house,  according  to 
the  extent  of  the  exclusion. 


GENERAL   REGULATIONS.  163 

In  case  of  di2>htheria,  until  one  week  after  tlie  termina- 
tion of  the  last  case,  on  the  floor  or  in  the  house,  accord- 
ing to  the  exclusion. 

In  any  case  of  scarlet  fever,  measles,  or  diphtheria,  until 
a  certificate  of  the  Board  of  Health  is  produced,  stating 
that  the  apartments,  bedding,  and  clothing  affected  by  the 
contagion  have  been  properly  disinfected. 

If  the  disease  be  small-jyox  or  typhus  fever,  children 
who  have  been  in  such  a  case  excluded  must  not  resume 
their  attendance  without  producing  a  certificate  from  the 
Board  of  Health  stating  that  it  is  safe  for  them  to  do  so. 

New  scholars  applying  for  admission,  and  living  in 
houses  or  on  floors  where  a  contagious  disease  prevails, 
must  be  admitted  or  excluded  in  compliance  with  the 
above  rules. 

Principals  and  teachers  in  charge  are  required  to  com- 
municate to  the  Clerk  of  the  Board  of  Education  any 
information  received  by  them  relative  to  this  subject  and 
not  known  to  be  in  his  possession.  (By-Laws,  §  166,  page 
283,  Manual  1884.) 

Seating  Capacity. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  Prin- 
cipal to  reject  all  applications  for  the  admission  of  pupils 
into  any  school  or  class  whenever  the  room  occupied  by 
the  same  is  filled  to  the  extent  of  its  seating  capacity.  In 
fixing  the  seating  capacity  of  rooms,  the  following  shall 
be  a  minimum  allowance  of  floor  surface  and  air  space 
per  pupil : 

In  the  three  lower  classes  of  Primary  Schools  and  De- 
partments, five  square  feet  and  seventy  cubic  feet. 

In  the  three  higher  grades,  six  square  feet  and  eighty 
cubic  feet. 

In  the  four  lower  grades  of  Grammar  Schools,  seven 
square  feet  and  ninety  cubic  feet. 


164  GENERAL   EEGULATIONS. 

In  the  four  higher  grades,  nine  square  feet  and  one  hun- 
dred cubic  feet. 

In  the  admission  of  pupils,  those  residing  nearest  to  any 
school  shall  in  all  cases  have  the  preference.  All  rejected 
applicants  shall  be  sent  to  the  nearest  school  having  ac- 
commodations for  thejn. 

The  seating  capacity  of  each  room  in  each  school  build- 
ing (estimated  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this 
by-law)  shall  be  conspicuously  posted  in  each  room.  (By- 
Laws,  §  33,  subdivision  14,  page  103,  Manual  1884.) 

See  "  Size  of  Class,"  page  151. 

License  Necessary. — No  person  shall  be  permitted  to 
perform  service  in  any  position  as  a  teacher  until  licensed. 
*  *  *  (By-Laws,  §  25,  part  of  subdivision  2,  page 
T9,  Manual  1884.) 

Teachers  to  Report  their  Absence. — Any  teacher  absent 
from  duty  shall  report  promptly,  in  writing,  to  the  Princi- 
pal of  the  school,  the  cause  of  such  absence,  and  state  its 
probable  duration,  and  anj^  teacher  wilfully  making  a  false 
report  shall  thereby  forfeit  his  or  her  position.      *      *     * 

!No  subordinate  teacher,  absent  from  duty,  who  fails  to 
communicate  promptly  with  the  Principal,  shall  be  excused 
for  such  absence,  nor  shall  any  teachei-s  absent  be  excused 
except  upon  a  report  thereon  by  the  Principal  to  the  Board 
of  Trustees  of  the  "Ward.  (By-Laws,  §  33,  part  of  sub- 
division 8,  page  100,  Manual  1884.) 

Female  Teachers  to  Report  Marriage. — Any  female 
teacher  marrying,  shall  report  in  writing  her  married  name 
and  address  to  the  Clerk  of  this  Board  and  Chairman  of 
the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  "Ward  in  which  she  is  em- 
ployed ;  and  any  teacher  failing  to  comply  with  this  by- 
law within  thirty  days  after  her  marriage,  shall  thereby 
forfeit  her  position  as  teacher,  and  all  salary  that  may  be 


GENERAL   REGULATIONS.  165 

due  her  from  the  time  of  lier  marriage.  (By-Laws,  §  33, 
subdivision  8,  page  100,  Manual  1884.) 

Time  Occxijpied  in  Teaching. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
every  teacher  to  occupy  the  whole  of  each  school  session, 
or  time  for  which  the  teacher  is  employed,  in  the  purposes 
of  instruction,  or  the  making  of  entries  necessary  to  be 
made  at  the  time;  and  no  assistant  teacher  shall  draw  a 
salary  or  receive  compensation  as  a  special  teacher,  if  em- 
ployed as  such  during  the  regular  school  hours.  (By-Laws, 
§  33,  subdivision  12,  page  103,  Manual  1884.) 

Frnfeiture  of  Position. — The  situation  of  a  teacher  or 
janitor  shall  be  forfeited  for  disgraceful  or  immoral  con- 
duct, incompetency,  or  wilful  violation  of  any  rule  or 
regulation  of  this  Board  ;  and  no  teacher  or  janitor  so  re- 
moved shall  thereafter  be  employed  in  any  school,  unless 
the  forfeiture  be  remitted  by  this  Board.  (By-Laws,  § 
135,  page  209,  Manual  1884.) 

See,  also.  Violation  of  the  By-Laio  relative  to  corporal 
punishment. 

Corjpoi^al  Punishment  Prohibited. — Xo  corporal  pun- 
ishment of  any  description  shall  hereafter  be  inflicted  in 
any  of  the  common  schools.  (By-Laws,  §  44,  page  122, 
Manual  1884.) 

Violation  of  this  By-Law. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every 
Principal,  Trustee,  Inspector,  or  Superintendent,  when  cog- 
nizant of  the  fact,  to  report  to  the  Board  of  Education  the 
name  of  any  teacher  who  may  liave  resoi-ted  to  unusual 
punishments  tending  to  inflict  physical  injury,  or  to 
evade  the  by-law  abolishing  corporal  punishment  in  the 
schools  under  the  control  of  the  Board. 

Any  teacher  found  guilty  of  a  violation  of  the  by-laws 
of  this  Board,  in  regard  to  corporal  punishment,  shall  be 
liable  to  a  penalty  of  forfeiture  from  his  or  her  salary  of 


166  GENERAL   REGULATIONS. 

not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  thirty  days'  pay,  or  dis- 
missal from  school,  as  in  the  discretion  of  the  Committee 
on  Teachers  may  be  deemed  just  and  proper;  provided  the 
action  of  the  Committee  be  approved  by  the  Board  of 
Education.     (By-Laws,  §  44,  page  122,  Manual  1884.) 

Review  of  Studies  to  Precede  Promotions. — Every  ex- 
amination for  promotion  to  a  higher  grade  shall  be  preceded 
by  a  thorough  review  of  all  the  studies  pursued  in  the 
grade  from  which  said  promotion  is  to  be  made.  (By- 
Laws,  §  154,  page  262,  Manual  1884.) 

Credit  Marks. — 1.  In  every  class  of  the  Primary  and 
Grammar  Schools  the  daily  record  of  credit  marks  awarded 
to  the  pupils  for  regular  and  punctual  attendance,  and  for 
excellence  in  deportment  and  in  the  several  studies  and 
exercises,  shall  be  kept  in  the  book  known  as  "  School  Rec- 
ord Ko.  7." 

2.  In  all  of  the  Grammar  Grades,  and  in  the  Primary 
Grades  1,  2,  and  3,  the  daily  maxinmm  of  credit  marks  for 
conduct  shall  be  10  ;  for  regular  and  punctual  attendance, 
10 ;  and  for  each  recitation  or  other  exercise,  10.  In 
awarding  the  credit  marks,  the  various  degrees  of  merit 
shall  be  indicated  by  10  for  "  perfect,"  8  to  5  for  "  imper- 
fect," and  0  for  "failure." 

3.  At  the  close  of  each  calendar  month,  the  product 
obtained  by  multiplying  the  whole  number  of  recitations 
and  other  class  exercises  during  the  month  by  10,  added 
to  the  product  of  the  whole  number  of  school-days  of 
the  month  by  20,  shall  constitute  the  standard  number 
for  that  month.  This  number  shall  form  the  basis  of  all 
merit  rolls,  certificates  of  merit,  and  monthly  reports  to 
parents. 

4.  In  the  Primary  Grades  4,  5,  and  6,  the  daily  maxi- 
mum of  credit  marks  for  conduct  shall  be  10 ;  for  regular 


GENERAL   REGULATIONS.  167 

and  punctual  attendance,  10  ;  and  for  all  of  the  class  exer- 
cises taken  together,  10  ;  the  maximuui  of  forfeiture  for 
or  during  any  one  exercise  being  2.  The  standard  number 
for  the  month  shall  be  obtained  by  multiplying  the  number 
of  school-days  by  30. 

5.  If  extra  credit  marks  are  awarded  for  superior  merit, 
they  shall  in  no  case  be  allowed  to  exceed  ten  per  cent,  of 
the  standard  number. 

6.  In  no  case  shall  credit  marks  earned  for  attendance, 
or  for  recitations  or  other  exercises,  be  forfeited  for  mis- 
conduct. 

7.  In  the  column  headed  "  attendance,"  each  half  day's 
attendance  shall  be  marked  separately. 

8.  When  diaries  are  used,  they  shall  be  marked  to  cor- 
respond with  the  general  class  record  kept  as  above  directed. 

9.  "Whenever  it  shall  be  satisfactorily  shown  by  the  cer- 
tificate of  the  parent  or  guardian  that  pupils  have  been 
prevented  from  attending  school  in  consequence  of  sickness 
or  religious  observances,  their  absence  shall  be  excused 
without  a  forfeiture  of  the  usual  certificate  of  merit,  and 
as  far  as  possible  without  loss  of  class  standing  thereby. 
Such  pupils  are  nevertheless  to  be  considered  as  absentees. 
(By-Laws,  §  128,  page  203,  Manual  1884.) 

Incorrigible  Pupils. — Any  pupil  found  to  be  incorrigible, 
or  persistently  disobedient  to  and  regardless  of  the  rules 
and  regulations  prescribed  for  the  government  of  the 
school  or  class,  or  of  resisting  the  authority  of  the  Princi- 
pal or  class  teacher,  or  who,  by  a  reckless  depravity,  may 
injure  or  demoralize  the  school  or  class,  may  be  suspended 
by  the  Principal  from  the  school. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Principal  of  every  school 
thus  suspending  a  pupil,  to  give  immediate  notice  thereof 
to  the  parent  or  guardian  of  such  pupil,  and  also  to  re- 


168  GENERAL   REGULATIONS. 

port  the  same  to  the  City  Superintendent  and  the  Chair- 
man of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Ward. 

The  parent  or  guardian  of  such  pupil  may,  within  ten 
days  thereafter,  appeal  from  the  action  of  the  Principal 
to  the  said  Trustees,  who  shall  thereupon  investigate 
the  matter,  and  report  their  action  to  the  City  Superin- 
tendent. 

If  no  such  appeal  be  taken,  or  if  such  appeal  be  dis- 
missed by  the  Trustees,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  City 
Superintendent  to  notify  the  Principal  of  every  other 
school  for  the  same  sex,  of  the  name  of  such  suspended 
pupil,  and  he  or  she  shall  not  be  admitted  into  the  same 
or  any  other  school  until  satisfactory  proof  of  amendment 
on  the  part  of  such  pupil  shall  have  been  furnished  to  the 
City  Superintendent,  whose  certificate  of  the  removal  of 
the  disability  shall  entitle  any  suspended  pupil  to  read- 
mission  in  the  same  or  any  other  school. 

The  Trustees  may  require  the  transfer  of  any  pupil  sus- 
pended from  one  school  to  any  other  school  under  their 
management,  if,  in  their  judgment,  they  shall  deem  it 
beneficial  or  advantageous  to  such  pupil.  (By-Laws,  § 
44,  page  120,  Manual  1884.) 

Pupils  not  to  he  Sent  from  School. — Pupils  shall  not  be 
sent  from  the  school  premises,  upon  errands,  during  the 
school  hours,  except  in  cases  of  necessity  or  emergency, 
and  with  the  consent  of  the  pupil,  and  in  such  cases  only 
by  the  authority  of  the  Principal  or  Acting  Principal,  who 
only  shall  be  autiiorized  to  send  a  pupil  of  suitable  age  and 
discretion,  and  shall  record  in  a  suitable  book  the  name  of 
the  pupil  so  sent,  with  the  date,  the  occasion,  and  the  du- 
ration of  absence.  (By-Laws,  §  65,  subdivision  4,  page 
151,  Manual  1884.) 

Exhibitions. — No    public   exhibition   requiring   special 


GENERAL   UEGULATIOXS.  1G9 

preparation  shall  be  given  in  any  school  or  department,  if 
at  all,  oftener  than  once  dnring  each  year,  except  by  per- 
mission of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  and  no  public  exhibition 
or  entertainment  shall  be  given  outside  the  school  build- 
ing without  the  consent  of  the  Board  of  Education.-  (By- 
Laws,  §  156,  page  263,  jNIannal  1884.) 

Gifts  ProJiihited. — I^o  teacher  shall  make  or  contribute 
any  gift  to  a  school  officer  or  superhitendent,  nor  shall 
money  or  other  things  be  in  any  case  collected  or  taken 
from  a  pupil  or  teacher,  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  a 
gift  or  testimonial  to  a  teacher,  school  officer,  or  superin- 
tendent, or  for  any  other  purpose,  unless  previously  sanc- 
tioned by  this  Board.  (By-Laws,  §  133,  page  207,  Manual 
1884.) 

Extra  Coinpensation.  to  Teachers.— ^o  compensation 
shall  be  received  by  any  teacher  for  instruction  given  in 
any  school  building,  except  the  salaries  paid  by  this  Board. 
(By-Laws,  §  133,  part  of  subdivision  1,  page  208,  Manual 
188L) 

See  also  "Time  Occupied  in  Teaching,"  page  167. 

Conditions  Requisite  to  Engagement. — Xo  teacher  shall 
be  appointed  in  any  school  to  whom  any  school  officer  en- 
titled to  act  upon  the  question  of  the  appointment  or 
payment  of  such  teacher  is  related,  by  either  blood  or  mar- 
riage, as  husband,  father,  son,  brother,  nncle,  nephew,  or 
first  cousin  ;  but  the  provisions  aforesaid  shall  not  apply 
to  the  appointment  or  promotion  of  teachers  employed  in 
the  schools  previous  to  the  election  or  appointment  of  a 
school  officer  who  may  be  related  to  said  teacher.  (By- 
Laws,  §  33,  subdivision  1,  page  93,  Manual  1884.) 

Additional  Teachers — Hoio  Granted.— l^o  teacher  shall 
be  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Trustees  in  any  Ward  un- 
less the  average  attendance  of  pupils  shall  be  equal  to  at 


170  GENERAL   REGULATIONS. 

least  thirty-five  to  each  teacher  in  a  Grammar  School,  and 
at  least  fifty  to  each  teacher  in  a  Primary  School  (exclu- 
sive of  the  Principals  and  teachers  of  special  subjects), 
based  upon  the  sworn  returns,  made  by  the  Principal,  for 
the  year  ending  December  31st,  next  preceding.  In  mixed 
schools  and  departments,  for  every  thirty -five  pupils  of  a 
Grammar  grade,  and  for  every  fifty  pupils  of  a  Primary 
grade,  one  teacher  shall  be  allowed. 

But  if  the  Committee  on  Teachers  shall  deem  it  neces- 
sary for  the  proper  instruction  of  the  pupils  of  any  school, 
that  additional  teachers  should  be  employed  therein,  it 
shall  be  their  duty  to  investigate  the  same,  and  if  found 
necessary,  to  authorize  the  Trustees  of  any  Ward  to  em- 
ploy such  additional  teachers.  When  such  teachers  are 
authorized  to  be  employed,  said  committee  shall  designate 
the  time  from  which  the  said  employment  shall  commence 
and  at  which  it  shall  terminate,  and  the  amount  of  salary 
to  be  paid,  subject  to  the  general  regulations  prescribed  for 
teachers'  salaries ;  and  no  additional  teacher  so  authorized 
shall  be  paid  except  for  the  time  and  at  the  rate  so  stated. 
(By-Laws,  §  33,  subdivision  2,  page  93,  Manual  1884.) 

Vice-Princijpals  and  Male  Assistants. — Iso  Yice-Prin- 
cipal  shall  hereafter  be  appointed  in  any  Grammar  or 
Primary  School  or  Department.  Xo  more  than  two 
male  assistants  shall  be  appointed  in  any  Male  Grammar 
School,  unless  the  average  attendance  of  scholars  for  the 
year  ending  on  the  preceding  31st  day  of  December,  shall 
have  exceeded  two  hundred  and  fifty  pupils  of  a  Gram- 
mar grade  ;  nor  moi*e  than  three  male  assistants,  unless 
the  average  attendance  shall  have  exceeded  five  hundred. 
^o  more  than  five  male  assistants  in  any  Male  Grammar 
School  shall  be  allowed.  (By-Laws,  §  33,  subdivision  3, 
page  95,  Manual  1884.) 


GENERAL   REGULATIONS.  171 

W/ien  Teax;hers  may  he  Envployed  rcithout  Clcuises. — In 
no  Grammar  School,  the  average  attendance  of  which  is 
less  than  five  huDclred,  and  in  no  Primary  School  or  De- 
partment the  average  attendance  of  which  is  less  than 
seven  hundred,  shall  any  teacher,  except  the  Principal, 
he  employed  for  any  other  purpose  than  regular  class  in- 
struction ;  nor  should  more  than  one  teacher,  in  addition 
to  the  Principal,  be  employed,  except  as  a  class  teacher,  in 
any  Primary  or  Grammar  School,  except  that  in  Gram- 
mar Schools  in  which  the  average  attendance  exceeds 
eight  hundred,  and  in  Primary  Schools  or  Departments 
having  an  average  attendance  exceeding  twelve  hundred, 
two  teachers,  iu  addition  to  the  Principal,  may  be  em- 
ployed, besides  those  engaged  in  the  regular  instruction 
of  classes ;  and  whenever,  by  reason  of  the  closing  of  a 
school,  any  teachers  are  without  employment,  though 
drawing  the  salaries  of  their  respective  positions,  it  shall 
be  competent  for  the  Committee  on  Teachers  to  direct 
their  employment  in  positions  in  which  their  services  may 
be  needed  in  any  ward,  according  to  arrangements  to  be 
adjusted  with  the  Trustees  of  said  ward.  Provided  that 
nothing  in  this  by-law  shall  be  construed  to  conflict  with 
section  33,  subdivision  2,  of  the  By-Laws,  so  far  as  said 
section  gives  the  Committee  on  Teachers  the  power  to 
grant  additional  teachers.  (By-Laws,  §  33,  subdivision  6, 
page  98,  Manual  1884.) 

Absences  of  Teachers — Hoio  Excused. —  Ko  teacher 
shall  be  excused  by  any  Board  of  Trustees  for  absence 
from  duty,  unless  such  absence  has  been  caused  by  the 
teacher's  illness,  or  by  death  in  the  family  of  which  the 
teacher  is  a  member.  No  leave  or  excuse  of  absence  on 
pay,  for  a  longer  period  than  two  school  days  in  any  one 
month,  shall  be  valid,  unless  conlii-med  by  the  Board  of 


172  GENERAL   REGULATIONS. 

Education.  (By-Laws,  §  33,  part  of  subdivision  7,  page 
99,  Manual  1884.) 

]S[o  leave  of  absence  shall  be  given  to  any  teacher  with- 
out the  appointment  by  the  Trustees  of  a  licensed  teacher, 
as  substitute  to  take  the  place  of  the  absentee,  when  neces- 
sary to  provide  that  no  class  shall  be  left  without  instruc- 
tion ;  and  such  substitute  shall  be  paid  out  of  the  salary 
forfeited  by  the  absent  teacher ;  except  when  the  absence 
of  a  regular  teacher  has  been  excused  with  pay  by  the 
Board  of  Education,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Teachers.  The  absence  of  a  rpgular  teacher 
may  be  excused  by  the  Board,  with  full  pay,  on  the  appli- 
cation of  a  Board  of  Trustees,  certifying  that  the  absence 
is  necessary  for  the  restoration  to  health  of  the  teacher. 
No  such  application  shall  be  entertained  or  granted  unless 
in  the  case  of  a  teacher  whose  record  shall  show  a  meri- 
torious service  for  five  years.  Such  application  shall  be 
referred  to  the  Committee  on  Teachers,  who  shall  examine 
the  case  and  report  thereon  to  the  Board.  No  such  ab- 
sence shall  be  granted  or  excused  for  a  longer  period  than 
three  months  in  the  aggregate,  and  no  other  application 
in  the  same  case  shall  be  entertained. 

The  absence  of  any  regular  teacher  may  be  excused  by 
the  Committee  on  Teachers,  with  full  pay,  on  application 
of  the  Trustees,  when  such  absence  is  caused  by  or  on  ac- 
count of  contagious  disease.  (By-laws,  §  33,  part  of  sub- 
division 9,  page  101,  Manual  1884.) 

Salary  of  Substitute  Teacher. — 1S.0  salary  paid  to  a  sub- 
stitute teacher  shall  exceed  three-fourths  of  the  regular 
salary  of  the  position  in  which  the  substitute  teacher  is 
emploj^ed.  (By-laws,  §  33,  part  of  subdivision  9,  page 
102,  Manual  1884.) 

Salaries  of  Assistant  Teachers. — The  salaries  of  assist- 


GEISTERAL   REGULATIONS.  173 

ant  teachers  sliall  be  graded  by  the  Trustees  of  the  respec- 
tive AVards  in  applying  the  average  sums  allowed  for  the 
respective  schools  and  departments,  so  that  in  no  case  the 
difference  between  the  salaries  of  any  two  successive 
grades  shall  exceed  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars,  as  to 
female  teachers,  and  the  sum  of  three  hundred  dollars  as 
to  male  teachers.  (By-laws,  §  35,  subdivision  6,  page  111, 
Manual  1884.) 

1.  The  minimum  salary  paid  to  any  assistant  teacher 
employed  in  the  schools  under  the  control  of  the  Board 
shall  be  five  hundred  dollars. 

2.  The  salaries  of  teachers  shall  commence  at  the  times 
they  respectively  enter  upon  their  duties,  when  legally 
appointed. 

3.  No  retrospeeti\-e  increase  of  salary  shall  in  any  way 
be  allowed.     (By-laws,  §  36,  page  111,  Manual  1884.) 

Reducing  Salaries  of  Teachers  hy  Trustees — when  Pro- 
hibited.— Xo  reduction  of  salary  shall  be  made  in  the  case 
of  any  Principal  or  Yice-Principal  or  assistant  teacher 
whose  appeal  from  the  action  of  the  Board  of  Trustees 
shall  have  been  sustained  by  the  Board  of  Education,  ex- 
cept upon  the  approval  of  the  said  last-mentioned  Board  ; 
and  no  reduction  shall  be  made  in  the  salary  of  any  teacher 
whose  removal  by  a  Board  of  Trustees  has  not  been  ap- 
proved by  the  Inspectors  of  a  school  district,  or  a  majority 
of  them,  unless  the  decision  of  the  latter  is  overruled  by 
the  action  of  this  Board.  (By-Laws,  §  38,  page  113,  Man- 
ual 1884.) 

French  and  German. — Whenever  the  parents  or  guar- 
dians of  at  least  thirty  pupils  attending  a  Grammar 
Department  shall  desire  the  introduction  of  French  or 
German,  the  Trustees  of  the  Ward  shall  introduce  the 
study  of  such  language  in  said  department,  but  no  child 


174  GEXERAL   REGULATIOIVS. 

shall  be  compelled  to  study  German  or  French  contrary  to 
the  wishes  of  its  parents  or  guardians,  expressed  either 
personal!}^  or  in  writing;;  and  whenever  the  average  at 
tendance  of   pupils  engaged  in  the  study  of  French   ( 
German,  in  any  class,  shall  fall  below  fifteen  for  the  periot 
of  three  months,  such  study  shall  thereafter  be  discon- 
tinued in  said  class.     (§  158,  page  263,  Manual  1884.) 

Salaries  of  Special  Teachers  of  Music,  French,  Ger- 
man, and  Draicing. — Teachers  of  Yocal  Music,  Drawing, 
French,  and  German  shall  be  classified  as  special  teachers. 
Ko  salary  paid  to  a  teacher  of  Yocal  Music  in  a  Gram- 
mar or  Primary  School,  or  to  a  teacher  of  French  or  Ger- 
man in  a  Grammar  School,  shall  exceed  the  rate  of  one 
dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  hour  for  the  time  actually  em- 
ployed in  instruction.  Ko  salary  paid  to  a  teacher  of 
Drawing  in  a  Grammar  School  shall  exceed  the  sum  of 
two  dollars  per  hour  for  the  time  actually  employed  in  in- 
struction. 

The  time  occupied  in  the  teaching  of  said  studies  re- 
spectively shall  not  exceed  the  following,  viz. : 

Music. — One  hour  and  twenty  minutes  per  week  in 
Primary  Schools  and  Departments. 

Music. — One  hour  and  forty  minutes  per  week  in  Gram- 
mar Schools. 

Draioing. — Three  hours  and  twenty  minutes  per  week 
in  Grammar  Schools. 

French. — One  hour  and  fort}'  minutes  per  week  for 
each  class  where  such  study  is  authorized  to  be  taught  in 
Grammar  Schools. 

German. — One  hour  and  forty  minutes  per  week  for 
each  class  where  such  study  is  authorized  to  be  taught  in 
Grammar  Schools. 

No  person  shall  be  employed  to  teach  in  any  school  any 


GENERAL   EEGULATIONS.  175 

study  not  authorized  by  the  Course  of  Studies  specified  by 
the  By-Laws  of  tliis  Board.  Teachers  of  special  subjects 
shall  obtain  licenses  from  the  City  Superintendent  for  the 
subjects  which  they  are  required  to  teach,  in  the  same 
manner  as  provided  by  the  rules  of  the  Board  for  teachers 
of  general  subjects.  Special  teachers  of  the  German  and 
French  languages  shall  not  be  hereafter  employed,  except 
in  the  manner  provided  by  Sections  158,  159,  and  160  of 
these  by-laws  as  amended. 

"Whenever  a  vacancy  in  the  position  of  a  special  teacher 
shall  occur,  the  Committee  on  Teachers  shall  determine 
whether  the  duties  of  such  position,  in  any  school,  shall 
be  performed  by  a  special  teacher  or  by  a  regular  teacher 
in  said  school. 

In  schools  where  no  special  teacher  of  Music  is  em- 
ployed, the  teacher  having  charge  of  the  Music  shall  re- 
ceive fifty  dollars  salary  in  addition  to  the  amount  allowed 
as  a  regular  assistant  teacher,  provided  the  usual  instruc- 
tion in  Music  is  given  ;  but  no  Principal  or  Yice-Principal 
of  a  school  shall  be  appointed  to  such  position.  (§  39, 
page  114,  Manual  1S84.) 


Duties  of  Principals. 

Shall  Keep  Register  of  Daily  Attendance  of  Teachers. — 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  Principal  to  keep  a  register 
of  the  attendance  of  teachers,  in  which  shall  be  entered 
daily  the  time  of  the  arrival  and  departure  of  each  teacher, 
and  any  absence  from  duty,  with  the  reason  of  such  ab- 
sence. (By-Laws,  §  33,  subdivision  10,  page  102,  Manual 
1884.) 

Shall  Report  Ahsences  of  Teachers. — It   shall  be   the 


176  GENEEAL   EEGULATIOISrS. 

duty  of  the  Principal  to  report,  without  delay,  all  ab- 
sences of  teachers  in  his  or  her  school,  to  the  Board  of 
Trustees,  with  a  statement  of  the  cause  of  each  absence  as 
far  as  known.  (By-Laws,  §  33,  part  of  subdivision  8, 
page  100,  Manual  1S84.) 

Shall  Report  other  Facts. — The  Principals  of  the  several 
schools  shall  report  to  the  City  Superintendent,  each 
month,  such  facts  as  he  may  require  in  relation  to  the  at- 
tendance of  teachers  and  pupils.  (By-Laws,  §  25,  subdivi- 
sion 5,  page  80,  Manual  IS 84.) 

Suspensioji  of  Pupils. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Prin- 
cipal of  every  school  thus  suspending  a  pupil  to  give  im- 
mediate notice  thereof  to  the  parent  or  guardian  of  such 
pupil,  and  also  to  report  the  same  to  the  City  Superintend- 
ent and  the  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the 
Ward.  (By-Laws,  §  44,  part  of  subdivision  1,  page  120, 
Manual  1884.) 

School  Sessions  Omitted. — A  special  report  from  the 
Principal  of  each  school  shall  accompany  each  paj^-roll, 
stating  whether  or  not  the  whole  or  a  part  of  any  session 
of  such  school  has  been  omitted  previous  to  the  date  of 
such  report,  and  subsequently  to  the  last  preceding  report, 
other  than  such  vacations  and  holidays  as  are  specially 
allowed  by  the  By-Laws  of  the  Board  of  Education  ;  and 
if  the  whole  or  a  part  of  any  session  has  been  so  omitted, 
for  what  reason,  and  by  what  authority  the  same  was 
omitted.     (By-Laws,  §  65,  page  149,  Manual  1884.) 

Principals  may  Visit  other  Schools. — The  Board  of 
Trustees  of  any  ward  may,  however,  permit  any  Princi- 
pal therein,  who  may  apply  therefor,  to  absent  himself  or 
herself  from  his  or  her  department  or  school,  without  loss 
of  pay,  for  a  period  not  exceeding  three  days  in  any  one 
year,  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  other  schools  in  the  city, 


GEJs^EEAL   REGULATIONS.  177 

but  sncli  absence  shall  be  reported,  as  required  by  the 
succeeding  subdivision.  (By-Laws,  §  33,  subdivision  7, 
page  99,  Manual  1884.) 

Provide  Statement  for  Examiner.  —  Whenever  any 
school  is  visited  for  examination  by  the  City  Superintend- 
ent, or  his  assistants,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Principal 
of  said  school  to  provide  the  examiner  with  a  statement 
showing  the  number  of  pupils  on  record  in  the  class,  the 
length  of  time  in  it,  their  age,  the  studies  pursued,  the 
progress  of  the  pupils  therein,  and  such  other  facts  as  he 
may  deem  requisite  to  enable  him  to  form  a  correct  esti- 
mate of  the  efficiency  of  the  instruction  imparted.  (By- 
Laws,  §  162,  page  265,  Manual  1884.) 

Promotions  from  Primary  Schools. — Promotions  shall 
be  made  from  the  Primary  to  the  Grammar  Schools  semi- 
annually, and  not  oftener,  except  by  the  Avritten  permis- 
sion of  the  City  Superintendent ;  and  no  pupil  shall  be 
promoted  from  any  Primary  School  iinless  examined  in 
all  the  studies  jirescrihed for  the  First  Grade  of  the  Course 
of  Instruction  for  Primary  Schools,  ?ii\^  found  qualified 
by  the  Principal  of  the  Department  into  which  the  pro- 
motion is  to  be  made  ;  and  when  found  qualified,  such 
pupils  shall  be  promoted  without  delay. 

Pupils  may  be  transferred  from  the  Primary  to  the 
Grammar  Schools  before  completing  the  First  Primary 
School  Grade,  with  the  consent  of  the  Committee  on 
(^ourse  of  Study  and  School  Books,  and  on  the  recommen- 
dation  of  the  City  Superintendent,  to  whom  application 
may  be  made  by  the  Trustees  in  any  ward,  showing  that 
said  ti-ansfer  is  necessary  in  order  to  relieve  the  crowded 
condition  of  any  Primary  School,  and  to  fill  vacancies  in 
the  classes  of  the  Grammar  School.  Pupils  thus  trans- 
ferred to  any  Grammar  SchtJol  shall,  hOwevcr,  be  taught  in 


178  GENERAL   REGULATIO]!^S. 

the  Primary  Grade  until  regularly  promoted  from  the  same, 
but  may  be  counted  as  a  part  of  the  regular  attendance  of 
the  Grammar  School.  (By-Laws,  §  149.  page  242,  Manual 
1884.) 

Pupils  Leaving  School  hetween  the  Ages  of  Eight  and 
Fourteen. — The  Principal  of  every  school  shall  transmit 
to  the  City  Superintendent,  hereinafter  mentioned,  at  the 
close  of  each  week,  a  list  of  children  between  the  ages  of 
eight  and  fourteen  years,  who,  such  Principal  shall  have 
reason  to  believe,  have  left  the  school  for  the  purpose 
of  engaging  in  any  employment. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Principal  of  every  school  to 
report  to  the  Agent  of  Truancy,  for  the  district  in  which 
such  school  is  situated,  the  names  of  all  children  between 
the  ages  of  eight  and  fourteen  years,  and  those  only, 
whose  non-attendance  at  school,  such  Principal  has  reason 
to  believe,  is  the  result  of  a  truant  disposition.  (By-Laws, 
§  144,  subdivisions  3  and  5,  pages  221  and  222,  Manual 
1884.) 

Keejp  Record  of  Truants  hetween  Ages  of  Eight  arid 
Fourteen. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Principal  of  every 
school  to  keep  a  record,  in  a  register  especially  provided 
for  that  purpose,  of  all  children  between  the  ages  of  eight 
and  fourteen  years,  who  have  been  reported  to  the  Agents 
of  Truancy  hereinafter  mentioned,  for  a  violation  of  the 
said  Act  of  May  11,  1874,  as  amended  May  28,  1876,  to- 
gether with  an  accurate  record  of  the  disposition  made 
of  each  case  by  said  Agent  of  Truancy,  when  reported  by 
them  to  said  Principal. 

It  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  said  Principal,  when  an 
Agent  of  Truancy  shall  bring  to  a  school  any  child,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  eight  and  fourteen  years,  not  registered 
as  a  pupil  of  said  school,  to  enter  his  or  her  name  upon 


GENERAL   REGULATIONS.  179 

said  special  register,  and  to  note  upon  said  register  any 
facts  relating  to  said  child  that  may  have  been  communi- 
cated to  said  Pi-incipal  by  said  Agent  of  Truancy.  (By- 
Laws,  §  144,  subdivision  1,  page  220,  Manual  1884.) 

Keep  Register  of  Residence  of  Parents^  etc. — It  shall 
be  the  duty  of  every  Principal,  on  the  reopening  of  the 
schools  in  September  of  each  year,  to  ascertain  and  regis- 
ter the  residences  of  the  parents  or  guardians  of  each 
and  every  pupil  attending  or  applying  for  admission  to 
the  school.  (By-Laws,  §  ^i).,  subdivision  2,  page  150, 
Manual  1884.) 

Keep  Record  of  Children  Refused  Admission. — The 
Principal  of  each  school  and  department  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Board  of  Education  shall  be  required  to  keep 
a  record  of  all  children  who  are  refused  admission,  and  the 
names,  ages,  and  residences  of  the  same  shall  be  inserted 
in  the  monthly  report  made  to  the  City  Superintendent. 
(By-Laws,  §  %h,  subdivision  3,  page  150,  Manual  1884.) 

Drills  for  Rapid  Dismission. — The  Principals  of  the 
several  schools  and  departments  shall,  under  the  direction 
of  the  City  Superintendent,  instruct  and  train  the  pupils 
by  means  of  drills,  so  that  they  may,  on  a  sudden  emer- 
gency, be  able  to  leave  the  building  in  the  shortest  possi- 
ble time  and  without  confusion  or  panic.  (By-Laws,  §  25, 
Bubdinsion  6,  page  80,  Manual  1884.) 

Shall  Examine  Classes  and  Report. — The  Principals  of 
the  schools  shall  examine  all  their  classes  in  the  prescribed 
bi'anches  of  study  at  least  twice  a  year,  namely,  imme- 
diately before  each  regular  promotion,  and  record  the  re- 
sults of  the  same  in  a  book  kept  for  that  purpose.  A  re- 
port of  all  such  examinations  shall  be  sent  to  the  (.^ity 
Superintendent,  who  sliall  have  it  recorded  in  a  book  kept 
for  that  purpose.     The  adjectives  to  be  used  by  the  Prin- 


180  GENERAL   EEGULATIONS. 

cipals  in  such  examination  shall  be  the  same  as  those 
made  use  of  by  the  Superintendent  under  these  by-laws. 
(By-Laws,  §  161,  page  265,  Manual  1884.) 

Ascertain  that  Teacher  has  License. — It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  Principal  of  each  school  to  ascertain  that  every 
subordinate  teacher  has  received  a  proper  license  before 
such  teacher  shall  be  assigned  to  any  duty.  (By-Laws, 
§  25,  part  of  subdivision  2,  page  79,  Manual  1884.) 

Eini)loy  Medical  Service  in  Case  of  Accident. — The 
Clerk  of  the  Board  shall  furnish  the  Piincipals  of  the 
Public  Schools  in  the  several  wards  with  a  correct  list  of 
the  names  and  residences  of  the  Police  Surgeons  and 
Health  Inspectors  living  nearest  to  such  schools  respec- 
tively, with  instructions  that  in  case  of  accidents  said 
Principals  shall  send  for  and  ask  the  medical  officers  herein 
named  for  such  aid  as  the  necessities  of  the  case  may  re- 
quire, and  in  case  of  the  absence  of  such  officers,  the 
Principal  of  the  school  where  the  accident  happens  is 
empowered  to  employ  the  services  of  the  first  available 
medical  practitioner  at  the  expense  of  this  Board.  (By- 
Laws,  §  129,  page  205,  Manual  1884.) 

Pupils  not  to  PuTchase  Suvplies. — The  Principal  of 
the  school  shall  procure  from  the  depository,  and  furnish 
each  pupil  with  the  books,  slate,  and  other  supplies  re- 
quired to  be  used  by  such  pupil ;  and  no  pupil  shall  be 
requested  or  required  to  purchase  any  book  or  other  article 
of  supply. 

School  Suipjplies — Inventory. — When  supplies  of  any  kind 
are  needed  for  any  school,  they  shall  be  plainly  entered  in 
the  pass-book  provided  by  the  Committee,  and  the  list 
shall  be  dated  and  attested  by  the  signature  of  the  Prin- 
cipal, and  countersigned  by  the  proper  officer  or  committee 
of  the  Board  of  Trustees  authorized  for  the  purpW^. 


GENERAL   KEGULATIOXS.  181 

An  accurate  inventor}^  shall  be  made,  during  the  last 
week  in  each  year,  of  the  books,  slates,  maps,  and  all  other 
articles  usually  embraced  under  the  name  of  supplies,  in 
every  school  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation— blank  forms  of  inventory  being  furnished  by  the 
Clerk  for  the  purpose — the  same,  when  completed,  to  be 
forwarded  to  and  filed  in  the  Clerk's  office. 

The  inventory  shall  designate  the  three  conditions  of 
supplies  on  hand,  in  separate  columns,  viz.,  Good,  Half- 
worn,  and  Old.  In  estimating  the  stock  on  hand,  the  whole 
of  the  class  ''  Good  "  shall  be  entered  on  the  list,  one-half  of 
the  class  "  Half-worn,"  and  one-fourth  of  the  class  "  Old," 
the  total  being  the  quantity  on  hand  of  each  item.  (By- 
Laws,  §§  122  and  123,  pages  194  and  195,  Manual  1884.) 

Admission  of  Pupils  to  School  Building,  and  their 
Supervision. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Principal  of  the 
school  to  make  provision  for  the  admission  of  pupils  into 
the  building  at  8.40  a.m.,  and  on  stormy  mornings  at  8.20  ; 
and  also  to  provide  suitable  supervision  of  the  play- 
grounds, by  one  or  more  teachers,  while  the  pupils  remain 
in  the  yard. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Principal  to  make  the  neces- 
sary inspection  to  ascertain  that  tire  school-rooms,  yards, 
etc.,  are  kept  in  a  cleanly  condition,  and  to  report  in 
writing  to  the  Board  of  Trustees  any  neglect  on  the  part 
of  the  janitor,  and  to  report  in  writing  repeated  subse- 
quent neglect  to  the  City  Superintendent. 

Principals  to  Prepare  Pay-Bolls. — The  Principal  of  the 
male  school  having  the  largest  attendance  in  any  school 
building,  for  his  own  school,  for  the  other  schools  in  the 
same  building,  and  for  such  primary  and  female  schools  as 
shall  be  assigned  to  his  charge  for  that  purpose  by  the 
Board  of  Trustees  fdr  the  "Ward,  shall  prepare  monthly  pay- 


182  GENERAL   REGULATIOTs^S. 

rolls  for  the  teachers  and  janitors  employed  therein.  Each 
pay-roll  shall  embrace  the  names  of  the  persons  included 
therein,  the  number  of  days  for  which  they  are  entitled 
to  pay,  and  the  rates  ;  the  amounts  to  be  paid  to  them 
severally,  with  blanks  for  their  signatures,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  receipt  thereof,  and  the  total  amount  of  the 
payments.  It  shall  be  delivered  to  the  chairman  of  the 
appropriate  Board  or  Committee  on  or  before  the  first 
day  of  the  next  ensuing  month,  and  shall  be  certified  and 
audited  by  the  proper  ofiicers  and  filed  with  the  Clerk  of 
this  Board  within  five  days  thereafter.  (By-Laws,  §  40, 
page  116,  Manual  18S4.) 

Declaration  of  Independence  or  Washington's  Farewell 
Address  to  he  Read. — On  the  school  days  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  fourth  day  of  July  and  the  twenty-second  day 
of  February,  in  each  and  every  year,  the  Principals  of  all 
the  common  schools  of  this  city  shall  assemble  the  pupils 
of  their  respective  schools  and  read,  or  cause  to  be  read 
to  them,  either  the  "  Declaration  of  Independence "  or 
"  Washington's  Farewell  Address  to  the  People  of  the 
United  States,"  combining  therewith  such  other  patriotic 
exercises  as  may  be  advisable.  (By-Laws,  §  65,  subdi- 
vision 5,  page  151,  Manual  1884.) 

To  Re;port  Violations  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  of 
the  Board. — Every  Principal  shall  report  to  the  proper 
Board  of  Trustees,  and  to  this  Board,  all  violations  of  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  this  Boai-d,  by  any  teacher  or 
janitor  of  which  the  Principal  may  be  cognizant ;  and  each 
pay-roll  shall  contain  an  allegation  that  the  Principal  has 
duly  reported  every  case  of  such  violation  by  a  teacher 
or  janitor  included  therein.  (By-Laws,  §  135,  page  209, 
Manual  1884.) 


GEISTEEAL   REGULATIONS.  183 

Duties  of  Janitors. 

Diiring  School  Hours. — It  shall  be  tlie  duty  of  the 
janitors  to  remain  in  the  school  buildings,  or  adjacent 
grounds,  during  the  ■whole  time  the  schools  are  in  session, 
and  be  at  all  times  ready  to  render  personal  assistance  in 
case  of  any  emergency. 


Heport  to  Principal. — They  shall  also  report  in  person 
to  the  Principal  of  each  school  at  each  and  every  daily 
school  session  ;  and  they  shall  also  ascertain,  on  the  first 
day  of  every  month,  by  the  index  of  the  gas-meters  in 
their  respective  schools,  the  amount  of  gas  consumed 
during  the  preceding  month,  and  report  tlie  same  in  writ- 
ing to  the  Clerk  of  the  Board  of  Education,  who  shall 
keep  a  record  of  the  same. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  janitors  who  reside  on  the 
premises  to  leave  some  responsible  person  in  charge  dur- 
ing their  occasional  absence. 

Janitors  who  do  not  reside  on  the  premises  must  visit 
the  school  building  for  a  sufficient  time  on  each  day  when 
tlie  schools  are  not  in  session  ;  but  in  no  case  should  their 
place  of  residence  be  further  than  five  hundred  yards  from 
the  school  premises,  unless  permission  be  given  by  the  en- 
gineer to  the  contrary,  and  all  such  permissions  given  by 
him  to  be  reported  to  the  Board  for  its  approval. 

Responsible  for  Security  of  Buildings. — All  janitors  will 
be  held  responsible  for  the  security  of  the  school  buildings, 
by  locking  or  otherwise  securing  all  doors,  gates,  windows, 
and  other  means  of  access.  They  must  also  report  immedi- 
ately, to  the  Trustees  or  Principlal,  any  damage  that  may 


184  GENERAL    REGULATIONS. 

happen  to  any  part  of  the  school  property.     (By-laws,  § 
61,  subdivisions  2  and  3,  page  139,  Manual  1884.) 

Teachers'  Manual. 

If  adopted  by  said  Board,  it  {The  Teachers'  Manual) 
shall  become  valid  as  a  rule  for  the  government  of  teachers 
in  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  except  so  far  as  its  provis- 
ions are  inconsistent  with  the  By-Laws  of  the  Board.  (By- 
Laws,  §28,  subdivision  5,  page  88,  Manual  1884.) 


JUNIOR   EVENING   SCHOOLS.  185 


COURSE     OF    IXSTRUCTIOX    FOR    JUXIOR 
EYEKING  SCPIOOLS. 

EIGHTH    GRADE. 

Reading  from  a  First  or  Second  Reader. 

Sw fPsHons. — 1st,  it  sliould  lie  borne  in  mind  that  the  pupils  of  this 
grade  have  a  mental  developmi^nt  as  well  as  a  practical  use  of  words  far 
beyond  the  young  children  for  whom  a  Reader  of  this  grade  is  chiefly 
designed;  2d,  that  tiierefore  the  principal  efforts  in  this  grade  should 
be  to  develop  a  facility  in  pronouncing  all  the  words  of  the  Reader 
promptly  at  sight ;  3d,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  exer- 
cises as  spirited  as  the  subject  will  permit ;  and  4th,  considerable  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  distinctness  of  articulation  and  correctness  of 
pronunciation. 

Spelling  and  Definitions  of  the  words  of  the  reading 
lessons. 

Suggestions. — 1st,  the  spelling  in  this  grade  should  be  chiefly  oral,  in 
order  to  cover  as  much  ground  as  possible  in  each  lesson ;  2d,  before 
closing  the  lesson  a  selection  of  from  five  to  ten  of  the  most  difficult 
words  should  be  tested  by  having  the  whole  class  write  them  on  the 
slate  ;  3d,  the  difficult  words  of  preceding  lessons  should  be  rapidly  re- 
viewed at  least  twice  a  month  ;  4th,  the  sijelling  and  meaning  of  words 
of  like  sound  with  those  in  the  lessons  should  be  carefully  taught ;  5th, 
only  those  words  the  meaning  of  which  the  pupil  is  likely  to  mistake 
or  not  to  know,  should  be  dwelt  upon  in  the  definition  exercises  ;  6th, 
ability  to  use  words  properly  in  a  brief  sentence  or  phrase  is  the  best 
test  of  the  knowledge  of  their  meaning  in  the  lower  grades. 

Arithmetic,  through  multiplication. 

Suggestions. — 1st,  the  lesson  in  arithmetic  should  consist  of  three 
parts :  first,  a  few  minutes'  rapid  class  drill  with  the  blackboard  to  se- 
cure facility  and  precision  in  the  tables  of  addition,  subtraction,  and 
multiplication ;  second,  a  few  minutes  in  short  practical  exercises  in 


186  JT'NIOR   EVENING   SCHOOLS. 

mental  arithmetic,  chiefly  for  rapid  calculation  without  analysis  ;  third, 
the  remainder  of  the  time  should  be  given  to  exercises  wrought  upon 
the  slate  ;  2d,  all  the  examples  given  should  be  short ;  3d,  if  any 
analysis  is  required,  it  should  only  be  in  multiplication,  and  should  then 
be  as  concise  as  clearness  will  permit ;  4th,  neat  work  and  legible  figure?^ 
should  invariably  be  insisted  upon. 

Penmanshvp. — Elenientarj'-exercises  in  small  letters  and 
capitals  ;  also  in  short  words. 

Snggestions. — 1st,  each  lesson  should  first  be  briefly  illustrated  upon 
the  blackboard  ;  2d,  the  lesson  should  not  always  be  from  printed  cop- 
ies ;  3d,  the  letters  should  be  presented  in  the  order  of  their  difficulty, 
and  short  words  should  be  introduced  as  soon  as  a  few  letters  have  been 
taught. 

SEVENTH    GRADE. 

Reading  from  a  Third  Reader. 

Suggestions  as  in  Eighth  Grade  as  far  as  apposite.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  select  interesting  and  instructive  pieces. 

Sjpelling  and  Dcfimtions  of  the  words  of  the  reading 
lessons  ;  also  of  miscellaneous  words  bv  dictation. 

Suggestions  as  in  Eighth  Grade,  excepting  that  the  exercises  in  written 
spelling  should  occupy  at  least  half  the  time  given  to  the  subject. 

Arithmetic. — Short  and  Long  Division,  and  Federal 
Money. 

Suggestions  as  in  Eighth  Grade,  except  that  the  words  and  Division 
are  to  be  added  after  the  word  Multiplication. 

Penmaiislii]). — Words  and  short  sentences. 
Suggestions — see  1  and  2  of  Eighth  Grade. 

SIXTH    GRADE. 

Heading  of  the  gi'ade  of  a  Third  Reader  continued. 
SuggeMions  as  in  Eighth  and  Seventh  Grades. 


JUNIOR   EVENING   SCHOOLS,  187 

Spelling  and  Definitions  of  the  words  of  tlie  reading 
lessons ;  also  of  miscellaneous  words  from  dictation. 
Suggestions  as  in  Eighth  and  Seventh  Grades. 

Arithmetic  through  Common  Fractions  and  their  appli- 
cations to  Federal  Money, 

Suffffestions. — 1st,  thoseof  Eighthand  Seventh  Grades,  as  far  as  apposite; 
2d,  the  examples  selected  should  be  short  and  practic-al  as  possible  ;  8d, 
Common  Divisor  and  Least  Common  Multiple  should  be  chiefly  from 
inspection  and  only  in  immediate  connection  with  their  applications  to 
the  reduction  and  combination  of  fractions  ,  4th,  Addition,  Subtraction, 
and  Division  may  be  advantageously  taught  together  on  their  common 
basis  of  Least  Common  Denominator ;  5th,  the  chief  analyses  to  be 
taught  are  those  of  Common  Denominator,  Multiplication,  and  the  two 
cases  in  Division;  6tli,  the  applications  of  Fractions  to  Federal  Money 
should  constitute  a  prominent  element  of  the  exercises. 

Penmanshijp. — AVords  and  short  sentences,  continued. 
Suggestions  as  in  Seventh  Grade. 

FIFTH    GRADE, 

Reading — a  book  of  the  grade  of  a  Fourth  Header,  -u-ith 
continuous  text,  on  Familiar  Science. 

Suggestions. — 1st,  every  lesson  should  be  accompanied  with  a  brief 
review  of  the  subject-matter  ;  2d,  an  occasional  general  review  of  the 
subject-matter  will  give  one  of  the  brief  advantages  of  a  continuous 
text ;  8d,  difficult  words  and  those  requiriug  explanation  should  be 
carefully  attended  to  ;  4th,  distinctness  of  articiilation  and  naturalness 
of  tone  should  have  a  proper  share  of  attention. 

Spelling  and  Definitions  from  the  Reader,  and  miscel- 
laneous words. 

Suggestions  as  in  Eighth  and  Seventh  Grades. 

Arithmetic. — Decimal  Fractions  and  Common  Fractions 
reviewed,  with  simple  business  applications  of  both. 


188  JUNIOK   EVENING   SCHOOLS. 

Suggestions. — 1st,  after  teaching  the  principles  of  decimal  notations, 
the  reduction,  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of 
decimal  fractions  should  be  taught  and  explained  on  the  same  princi- 
ples as  similar  operations  in  common  fractions  ;  2d,  facility  in  convert- 
ing simple  common  fractions  to  decimals  and  decimals  to  common  frac- 
tions is  very  important  in  the  business  applications  of  fractions. 

Peiimanshvp. — Copies  and  longer  sentences. 

Suggestions. — 1st,  double-lined  books,  that  is,  those  having  both  base- 
line and  head-line  for  the  small  letters,  should  not  be  used ;  2d,  all 
members  of  the  class  should  write  the  same  lesson  ;  3d,  the  special 
difficulties  of  each  lesson  should  be  carefully  taught  by  means  of  the 
blackboard. 

FOUKTH    GRADE. 

Heading. — From  the  same  Reader  as  in  Fifth  Grade. 
Suggestions  as  in  Fifth  Grade. 

Spelling  and  Definitions  as  in  Fifth  Grade. 
Suggestions  as  in  Fifth  Grade. 

Arithmetic. — Compound  ISTumbers,  including  Federal 
Money,  Tables  of  Weights  and  Measures. 

Suggestions. — 1st,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  select  those  tables 
which  are  of  most  practical  importance  in  daily  life  ;  2d,  no  long  ex- 
amples should  be  given  ;  3d,  the  analysis,  when  required,  should  be 
brief  and  simple  ;  4th,  the  different  values  of  the  pound,  ounce,  ton, 
and  gallon  should  be  carefully  taught ;  5th,  areas  of  rectangles  and 
circles,  and  short  examples  in  finding  the  contents  of  boxes,  bins,  and 
cylinders,  in  feet,  inches,  gallons,  or  bushels,  should  constitute  a  part  of 
the  basis  of  instruction. 

Pentnanship. — Copies  ;  writing  short  paragraphs  from 
dictation,  or  from  the  Reader  or  some  other  book. 

Suggestions. — 1st,  the  latter  element  is  by  far  the  more  important ; 
2d,  draw  attention  to  the  correct  use  of  capitals  and  points,  and  to  the 
use  of  the  hyphen  at  the  end  of  the  line  ;  3d,  insist  upon  the  proper 


JUNIOR   EVENING   SCHOOLS.  189 

legible  medium  between  a  compact  and  a  sprawling  hand  ;  4th,  do  not 
allow  either  vertical  or  backliand  to  be  used  ;  5th,  insist  upon  a  plain 
style  without  flourishes  ;  6th,  permit  only  such  rapidity  as  is  thoroughly 
consistent  with  neatness  and  legibility. 

Geography. — An   outline  of  the  world  ;  to  be  taught 
orally  aud  with  the  use  of  the  globe  aud  outline  map. 

Suggestions. — 1st,  the  lessons  should  be  short  and  spirited;  2d,  they 
should  not  be  allowed  to  degenerate  into  mere  lectures.  The  pupils 
should  take  a  leading  and  active  part  in  pointing  out  and  describing  ; 
3d,  the  lessons  should  include  the  shape  of  the  earth,  its  size,  zones, 
seasons,  day  and  night,  divisions  into  land  and  water,  and  the  principal 
subdivisions  of  each.  Ideas  of  latitude  and  longitude,  their  necessity 
and  importance.  The  distinctions  of  mountain  systems,  plains,  and  the 
location  of  the  most  important  of  each  ;  the  most  important  rivers  and 
lakes  ;  a  few  of  the  leading  countries,  and  of  the  chief  commercial  and 
manufacturing  cities  ;  4th,  before  commencing  the  lesson  the  teacher 
should  have  as  definite  ideas  as  to  its  plans,  limits,  and  details  as  in  the 
lessons  in  arithmetic  or  penmanship  ;  5th,  frequent  and  rapid  reviews 
of  five  minutes  each  are  indispensable. 

THIRD    GRADE. 

Reading. — History  of  the  United  States. 
Suggestions  as  in  Fifth  Grade. 

Spelling  and  Definitions  from  the  reading  lessons. 

Suggestions  as  in  Eighth  and  Seventh  Grades,  excepting  that  the  spelling 
should  be  tested  only  by  writing  selected  words  and  sentences  on  slates. 

Ai'ithmetic. — Percentage  vydhoid  Time  ;  a  review  of 
those  parts  of  the  compound  numbers  which  are  of  the* 
most  practical  importance. 

Suggestions  as  in  Fifth  and  Fourth  Grades. 

Penmanshi/p. — Copies  and  paragraphs  as  in  Fourth  Grade 
Suggestions  as  in  Fourth  Grade. 


190  JUNIOR  EVENING   SCHOOLS. 

Geography. — A  brief  outline  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere, with  the  use  of  the  globe  and  outline  maps. 

Suggestions  as  in  Fourth  Grade,  except  as  to  suggestion  3d.  Tlie  lesson 
should  include,  first,  very  simple  outlines  of  the  physical  geography  of 
each  continent,  its  form,  dimensions,  chief  mountain  systems,  plateaus, 
and  plains;  its  drainage,  general  climates,  and  leading  vegetable  and 
animal  products.  The  separate  countries  of  the  continent  should  then 
be  considered,  great  care  being  taken  not  to  present  too  many  topo- 
graphical details.  The  leading  cities,  resources,  commerce,  and  com- 
mercial routes  should  receive  careful  attention. 


SECOND    GRADE. 

Reading. — History  of  the  United  States  continued. 
Sttggestioxs  as  in  Fifth  Grade. 

Spelling  and  Definitions  from  the  reading  lessons. 
Suggestions  as  in  Third  Grade. 

Arithmetic. — Review  of  simple  percentage  ;  interest, 
and  the  business  rules  dependent  upon  both. 

Suggestions. — 1st,  no  subordinate  topic  should  be  treated  exhaustively 
before  proceeding  to  the  next ;  2d,  frequent  reviews  with  brief  ex- 
amples will  insure  correctness,  rapidity,  and  thoroughness ;  3d,  clear 
explanations  should  be  required ;  4th,  before  completing  the  subject 
of  interest,  a  few  exercises  should  be  given  in  finding  interest  by  tables, 
and  the  tables  should  be  explained. 

Penmanship. — Copies  and  paragraphs  as  in  Third  Grade. 
Suggestions  as  in  Fourth  Grade. 

Geograj^hy . — The  Eastern  Hemisphere,  with  the  use  of 
the  globe  and  outline  maps. 

Suggestions  as  in  Third  Grad«. 


JUNIOR   EVENING   SCHOOLS.  191 

FIRST    GRADE. 

Reading. — General  History. 
Suggestions  as  in  Tliird  and  Second  Grades. 

Spelling  and  Definitions  from  the  reading  lessons. 
Suggestions  as  in  Third  Grade 

Arithmetic. — General  review  and   completion  of  busi 
ness  arithmetic. 

Suggestions  as  in  Second  Grade. 

Penmanship. — Paragraphs  and  business  forms  and  busi- 
ness letters. 

Suggestions. — The  points  of  each  business  letter  should  be  briefly  writ- 
ten \ipon  the  blackboard,  and  each  pupil  then  be  required  to  construct 
the  letter  himself. 

Book-keeping. 

Suggestions. — The  time  given  to  this  subject  should  not  be  allowed  to 
interfere  with  the  other  subjects  required  to  be  taught  in  this  grade. 

Geography. —  General  review,  with  outline  maps. 

Suggestions.  — Special  attention  should  be  given  to  such  important  cur- 
rent events  as  have  geographical  relations.  The  daily  paper  will  furnish 
an  abtiudance  of  valuable  and  useful  illustrations, 


102  CLASSES   FOR  FOREIGNERS. 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE   ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE  FOR  CLASSES  OF  FOREIGN- 
ERS  IN   EVENING   SCHOOLS. 

THIRD    GRADE. 

1.  Heading. — Second  or  Third  English  Reader  ;  special 
attention  to  be  called  to  idiouiatic  phrases  occurring  in  the 
lessons. 

2.  Penmanshij). — Writing  from  dictation.  The  use  of 
capitals  to  be  taught. 

3.  English  Grammar. — Special  attention  to  be  given  to 
the  peculiar  sounds  of  the  language ;  the  comparison  of 
adjectives  ;  the  formation  of  the  plural ;  the  simple  tenses 
of  auxiliary  verbs ;  the  principal  parts  of  a  few  of  the 
most  common  irregular  verbs. 

4.  Translations. — Translations  from  English  into  the 
native  language  of  the  pupils,  and  vice  versa. 

5.  Colloquial  Exeixises. — Among  the  first  topics  to  be 
selected  for  colloquial  exercises  should  be  the  following : 
(a)  easy  exercises  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication, 
and  division  ;  (J)  the  human  body  ;  (c)  house  and  home, 
garden  and  field  ;  (r?)  family  relations  and  friends  ;  {e)  the 
city  we  live  in ;  other  subjects  at  the  discretion  of  the 
teacher,  who  should  keep  a  list  of  the  exercises. 

The  teacher  should  give  the  usual  directions  as  soon  as 
jpossible  in  the. English  language. 

SECOND    GRADE. 

1.  Reading. — Fourth  English  Reader. 

2.  Penmanship. — Writing  from  dictation,  including 
words  and  sentences. 


CLASSES    FOR   FOREIGNERS.  193 

3.  English  Grammo/r. — Special  attention  to  he  given  to 
the  principal  parts  of  irregular  verhs  occurring  in  the 
Reader,  to  the  passive  voice,  and  to  the  principal  adverhs 
and  conjunctions. 

4.  Translations. — Continued. 

5.  Colloquial  Exercises. — The  following  subjects  should 
be  treated  of :  {a)  the  weather ;  (J)  mechanical  arts ;  (c) 
the  grocery  ;  [d)  social  amusements  ;  {e)  the  United  States 
and  its  government ;  other  subjects  at  the  discretion  of  the 
teacher,  who  should  keep  a  list  of  them. 

The  medium  of  instruction  should  he^  as  miich  asprac- 
ticdblej  tlie  English  language. 

FIRST    GRADE. 

1.  Reading. — Fifth  English  Reader,  History  of  the 
United  States,  or  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

2.  Penmanship. — Writing  from  dictation. 

8.  English  Grammar. — The  chief  peculiarities  of  syn- 
tax, attention  to  be  called  to  points  of  difference  between 
the  English  and  the  native  language  of  the  pupils.  Les- 
sons in  composition,  with  instruction  in  letter-writing. 

4.  Translations. — Continued. 

5.  Colloquial  Exercises. — Review  of  the  exercises  of  the 
two  preceding  grades  ;  otlier  subjects  to  be  selected  by 
the  teacher  ;  discussions  on  the  contents  of  the  reading  les- 

jsons;  debates. 

Teachers  should  keep  a  list  of  the  subjects  selected  by 
them  for  colloquial  exercises  and  debates. 

Tlie  English  language  should  he  exclusively  the  medium 
of  instruction  in  this  grade. 
9 


194  EVENING   SCHOOLS   FOR   SENIORS. 


EVENmG  SCHOOLS   FOR  SENIOES. 

i.  Reading. — Including  Spelling,  Definitions,  and  His- 
torical Readings. 

2.  Arithmetic. 

3.  Pemnanshijp. 

4.  Book-Tieejping. 

5.  Conyposition. 

Any  pupil  upon  his  admission  may,  at  his  option,  select 
not  more  than  two  of  the  said  branches  of  study  which  he 
desires  to  pursue  during  the  term. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Principal  of  each  School  for 
Seniors,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  City 
Superintendent,  to  arrange  an  order  of  exercises  for  each 
evening  during  the  term. 


APPENDIX. 


FIRST  PRIMARY   GRADE, 

Outline  Coukse. 

Langttage  Lessons. — Reading— oi  the  grade  of  an  easy  Third 
Reader  :  the  meaning  of  words  and  phrases  read  :  elementary  sounds  in 
the  pronunciation  of  words :  punctuation  marks  :  spelling,  as  in  the 
previous  grade  :  lessons  on  objects,  as  in  the  previous  grades,  with  more 
complete  descriptions  of  objects  ;  special  attention  to  be  given  to  those 
properties  which  fit  the  objects  for  their  particular  uses:  geography, 
without  text-books — points  of  the  compass  ;  location  and  direction  of 
familiar  places  ;  elementary  definitions  ;  shape  of  the  earth,  and  situa- 
tion of  the  principal  countries  and  bodies  of  water. 

Arithmetic. —  Written  and  Mental. — Addition,  and  subtraction  con- 
tinued  ;  midtiplication — multiplicand  not  exceeding  six  fgures,  multi- 
plier not  exceeding  four  figures  ;  division — divisors  not  exceeding  25  ; 
practical  examples  in  the  several  rules :  tables  of  Long  Measure  and 
Avoirdupois  Weight,  with  review  of  previous  grade  ;  simple  practical 
questions. 

Slate-Writing  and  Penmanship.  —  On  slates — brief  descriptions  of 
familiar  objects :  on  paper — words  with  capitals  ;  during  the  last  half 
of  this  grade  one  lesson  each  week  to  be  written  from  dictation. 

Drawing. — On  slate  and  paper,  illustrated  on  blackboard,  from  dic- 
tation and  from  chart :  quadrants  with  radius  of  two  inches  ;  design 
composed  of  straght  and  simple  curved  lines  symmetrically  arranged 
in  the  square,  equilateral  triangle,  hexagon,  and  octagon ;  two  ovate 
conventional  leaves  on  axis  of  three  inches. 

Sewing. — (In  girls'  classes.) 

Vocal  Music. — Instruction  continued  as  in  Second  Grade  ;  teach  the 
singing  of  simple  tunes  in  the  natural  scale  by  numerals,  syllables,  let- 
ters, la,  la,  la,  and  by  appropriate  words 

Physical  Training. — As  in  previous  grades. 

Manners  and  Morals. — Due  attention  to  be  given  in  each  grade  to 
training  pupils  in  right  habits. 


INSTRUCTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


LANGUAGE. 


Reading. — The  instructions  for  teaching  reading  in  tho 
two  preceding  grades,  are  appropriate  as  suggestions  for 
this  grade.  While  chief  attention  should  be  given  to 
Buch  reading  as  will  enable  the  pupils  to  gain  the  thoughts 
readily  from  the  printed  page,  due  attention  should  also 
be  given  to  such  elocutionary  exercises  as  will  increase  the 
pupils'  ability  to  speak  those  thoughts  in  such  a  manner 
that  those  who  listen  may  understand  them. 

For  the  purpose  of  tmining  pupils  to  gain  knowledge 
by  silent  reading^  require  them  to  read  a  paragraph  si- 
lently^ and  then  to  state  the  substance  of  what  it  con- 
tains. 

As  an  exercise  in  language,  allow  the  pupils  to  choose  a 
familiar  reading  lesson,  and  to  write  from  memory  the 
substance  of  the  lesson,  chiefly  in  their  own  language. 
Require  different  pupils  to  read  what  they  hav^e  written, 
and  other  members  of  the  class  to  notice  how  their  own 
statements  differ  from  those  read.  Then  the  pupils  may 
be  allowed  to  correct  their  own  statements,  and  to  write 
the  lesson  again.  An  exercise  of  this  kind  may  be  given 
once  a  week,  in  place  of  the  reading  and  slate- luriting  ex- 
ercises. It  would  be  profitable,  also,  for  the  teacher  to 
vary  this  language  exercise  by  reading  a  short,  interesting 
story  and  requiring  the  pupils  to  write  about  it. 


APPENDIX.  197 

Meaning  of  Words. — Read  carefully  the  suggestions 
given  in  the  Third  and  Second  Grades. 

Ele7nentary  Sounds  and  Punctuation. — The  suggestions 
already  given  for  the  preceding  grades  will  indicate  what 
ought  to  he  done  in  these  matters. 

Such  additional  attention  should  be  given  to  diacritical 
marks  as  will  enable  the  pupils  to  ascertain  by  their  aid 
how  the  given  words  in  the  Readers  should  be  pronounced, 
and  will  prepare  them  for  using  dictionaries  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

Sj-'elling. — More  attention  should  be  given  to  written 
than  to  oral  spelling.  Words  may  be  dictated  for  the  pu- 
pils to  write  on  their  slates  ;  short  sentences  may  be  given 
for  the  same  purpose ;  the  pupils  may  be  required  to  write 
in  groups  the  names  of  kinds  of  food,  of  articles  of  cloth- 
ing, of  furniture,  of  tools,  of  occupations,  of  animals, 
of  trees,  of  fruits,  of  things  that  may  be  purchased  at 
a  grocery,  etc.,  etc.  These  exercises  will  enable  pupils 
to  learn  the  spelling  of  a  large  class  of  words  in  common 
use. 

Object  Lessons. — Through  the  instruction  of  the  preced- 
ing grades  the  pupils  will  have  become  familiar  with  tho 
forms,  colors,  qualities,  materials,  and  uses  of  common  ob- 
jects, have  learned  the  terms  necessary  to  an  intelligent 
description  of  them,  and  have  been  provided  with  suitable 
facts,  to  prepare  them  for  practical  lessons  in  language. 
It  is  intended  that  the  pupils  shall  be  taught  in  this  grade 
how  to  use  these  facts  in  gaining  a  more  complete  knowl- 
edge of  the  materials,  qualities,  and  uses  of  articles  of  food 
and  clothing ;  also,  how  to  gain  appropriate  information 
in  relation  to  occupations,  trades,  productions,  and  arti- 
cles of  manufacture.  To  this  end  it  is  desirable  that  the 
classification  of  substances  as  animal^  vegetable^  and  inineraZ 


198  APPENDIX. 

should  now  be  tanglit.  Lead  the  pupil  to  observe  that 
animals  have  animal  life,  take  food,  grow,  h'eathe,  move 
froin  jplace  to  jplace  hy  their  own  jpower,  have  feelirig, 
and  die  ',  that  vegetables  have  vegetable  life,  take  food, 
grow,  and  die  y  that  minerals  have  no  Ife,  take  no  food, 
do  not  grow,  breathe,  move,  nor  die. 

Animals  and  vegetables  have  organized  parts — that  is, 
parts  adapted  to  separate  and  particular  purposes ;  as, 
ejes,  ears,  hands,  hair,  nails,  bones,  muscles,  blood ;  roots, 
trunks,  limbs,  wood,  sap,  bark,  leaves,  buds,  blossoms, 
fruit,  etc.     Minerals  have  no  such  organized  parts. 

The  pupils  may  also  be  taught  that  substances  such 
as  wool,  hair,  bone,  and  skin,  which  once  formed  parts  of 
animals,  etc.,  are  called  animal  substances ^  that  wood, 
bark,  gum,  and  sugar,  which  once  formed  parts  of  vegeta- 
bles, are  called  vegetable  sidjstances. 

Objects  are  to  be  used,  as  previously,  whenever  they 
may  be  necessary  to  proper  instruction :  select  chiefly 
those  objects  with  which  the  pupils  have  some  acquaint- 
ance by  personal  observation.  In  giving  a  lesson  the  fol- 
lowing steps  should  be  taken  : 

First.  Find  what  tlie  pupils  already  know  about  the  ob- 
ject ;  notice  and  correct  their  wrong  impressions. 

Second.  Teach  them  to  examine  the  object  systemat- 
ically in  learning  its  properties,  uses,  etc. 

Third.  Train  the  pupils  to  describe  the  object  intelli- 
gently (stating  its  chief  property,  and  its  most  important 
qualities  and  uses),  and  to  give  other  interesting  facts  con- 
cerning it. 

Topics  for  the  Lessons. — The  following  list  will  indicate 
topics  appropriate  for  lessons  in  this  gi-ade: 

Apple,  banana,  fig,  lemon,  orange,  peach,  raisin ;  coffee,  corn,  ginger, 
uuts,   ijejiper,    potato,    peanut,   rice,    salt,    sugar,  corn-starcli,    tapioca. 


APPENDIX.  199 

wheat ;  brick,  cotton,  calico,  flax,  glass,  earthen-ware,  India-rubber, 
leather,  paper,  silk,  soap,  wool  ;  roots,  buds,  leaves,  blossoms,  fruit  ; 
camphor,  chalk,  coal,  cork,  copper,  iron,  lead,  whalebone ;  baker, 
blacksmith,  carpenter,  dressmaker,  farmer,  grocer,  hatter,  mason,  mil- 
liner, painter,  printer,  shoemaker,  tailor ;  cat,  cow,  dog,  duck,  fish,  goat, 
goose,  hen,  horse,  sheep,  etc. 

It  is  not  supposed  that  lessons  will  be  given  on  all  the 
above  topics,  nor  that  the  teacher  will  confine  the  lessons 
to  those  in  this  list ;  but  it  is  desired  that  the  number  of 
lessons  shall  be  sufficient  to  teach  the  pupils  such  modes 
of  observation  as  will  prepare  them  for  obtaining  useful 
knowledge  from  surrounding  objects.  If  right  methods 
of  conducting  the  lessons  be  employed,  eight  or  ten  sub- 
jects, embracing  a  suitable  variety,  will  be  sufficient  to  ac- 
complish the  pui-pose. 

The  general  plan  of  proceeding  with  the  lessons  may  be 
understood  from  the  following  points  in  the  examination 
of  the  9bject : 

"What  is  it,  animal^  vegetable^  or  mineral  ? 

Is  it  a  natural  jproduction  or  a  manufacture  ? 

Where  and  hoio  is  it  obtained  f 

"What  are  the  chief  occujpatioas  or  trades  required  to 
obtain  or  to  produce  it  f 

Which  are  its  most  useful  qualities  f 

AVhat  are  its  chief  uses? 

What  is  its  general  shape  ? — its  color  ? 

Give  a  brief  description  of  the  object. 

"What  is  produced  by  the  occupation  of ? 

What  does  the do  ? 

In  view  of  the  great  practical  importance  of  the  sub- 
ject, the  condition  of  the  pupils,  especially  the  l)oys,  in 
relation  to  color-blindness  and  other  defects  of  visual  per- 
ception, should  be  carefully  ascertained.     Fur  this   pur- 


200  APPENDIX. 

pose,  test  the  pupils'  ability  to  distinguish  and  match  red^^ 
greens^  and  jc>urj)les.  Harmony  of  colors  should  receive 
attention,  especially  from  the  girls. 

Geography. — The  instruction  of  the  Primary  Course  in 
geography  is  to  be  given  without  text-books.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  the  first  lesson  commence  with  things  known  by 
the  pupils  through  their  personal  experience.  Attention 
may  be  directed — 

First. — To  the  location,  direction,  and  comparative  dis- 
tance from  the  school,  of  the  streets  in  the  immediate  vi- 
cinity, and  of  a  few  important  ones  farther  away ;  also, 
of  familiar  parks,  depots,  ferries,  and  of  a  few  prominent 
public  buildings  and  places,  such  as  City  Hall,  churches, 
libraries,  post-office  stations,  etc. 

Second. — To  the  relative  location  and  direction  of  places 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  city.  As  far  as  possible  the  location 
of  these  places  should  be  shown  by  an  outline  map  of 
!New  York  and  vicinity,  or  by  sketches  on  the  blackboard. 

During  these  lessons  the  terms  river,  ^ciy,  island,  ocean, 
strait,  etc.,  will  be  employed,  and  the  meaning  of  these 
terms  should  be  taught,  with  the  aid  of  chart,  map,  black- 
board, or  other  available  objects. 

The  names  and  location  of  islands,  rivers,  oceans,  etc., 
need  not  be  taught  at  this  stage  of  the  lessons. 

Third. — Extend  the  lessons  about  places,  villages,  etc., 
by  means  of  the  personal  experience  of  members  of  the 
class,  as  obtained  by  their  visits,  excursions,  and  vacation 
travels.  Let  the  places  so  mentioned  be  pointed  out  on 
maps.  These  lessons  will  prepare  the  pupils  for  under- 
standing more  clearly  subsequent  lessons  about  distant 
places. 

Fourth. — In  giving  the  pupils  ideas  of  the  shape  of  the 
earth,  use  marbles,  balls,  oranges,  and  the  terrestrial  globe. 


APPENDIX.  201 

Teach  the  location  of  difterent  countries,  islands,  etc.,  on 
the  globe  first. 

Fifth. — To  assist  the  pupils  in  remembering  the  names 
and  locations  of  the  grand  divisions,  associate  with  the 
places,  as  they  are  pointed  out  on  the  globe  and  on  the 
map,  familiar  people,  animals,  and  productions,  somewhat 
as  follows  :  Korth  America,  tlie  country  in  which  we  live  ; 
South  America,  the  home  of  the  monkey,  and  the  place 
where  Brazil  nuts,  cocoanuts,  and  India-rubber  are  ob- 
tained ;  Africa,  the  home  of  the  Negro,  the  camel,  ostrich, 
lion,  and  zebra  ;  Asia,  the  home  of  the  Chinese,  of  the 
elephant,  the  tiger,  and  the  place  where  tea,  pepper,  cloves, 
and  cinnamon  grow  ;  Australia,  the  land  of  the  kangaroo  ; 
Europe,  the  home  of  the  English,  Irish,  German,  French, 
Italians,  etc. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  names  and  locations  of  countries 
and  other  places  may  be  learned  ;  as,  Greenland,  the  home 
of  the  white  bear,  and  the  waters  around  it,  the  home  of 
the  whale  from  the  mouth  of  which  whalebone  is  ob- 
tained ;  West  Indies,  the  place  whence  we  obtain  oranges, 
bananas,  etc. ;  Spain,  the  country  where  cork  and  raisins 
are  produced. 

The  most  important  groups  of  islands,  two  or  three  of 
the  largest  rivers  and  prominent  ranges  of  mountains,  and 
a  few  of  the  largest  cities  of  the  world  may  be  included  in 
these  lessons ;  also  the  cold  and  warm  countries  may  be 
pointed  out:  the  houndaries  and  capitals  of  countries 
shoicld  not  he  taught. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  pupils  do  not  obtain  the 
false  impression  that,  to  travel  from  a  place  represented 
at  or  near  the  bottom  of  a  map  toward  a  place  represented 
at  or  near  the  top  of  the  map,  one  must  go  vjy.  In  lead- 
ing the  pupils  to  avoid  this  common  error,  point  out  the 


202  APPENDIX. 

course  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  ca,use  them  to 
understand  that  its  waters  flow  down  toward  the  north- 
east, and  not  wpioard. 

The  relative  direction  and  location  of  places  may  be 
easily  illustrated  by  simple  dots  on  the  blackboard,  and  on 
slates. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Addition  and  Subtraction. — Continued  and  special  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  teaching  the  uses  of  these  rules 
by  means  of  practical  examples.  It  is  expected  that  the 
pupils  will  have  been  taught  so  thoroughly  before  they  are 
placed  in  this  grade  that  each  one  will  be  able  to  add  and 
subtract  with  facility,  and  with  a  good  degree  of  accuracy; 
yet  reviews  of  these  rules  should  be  had,  with  examples  as 
above  stated,  at  least  twice  each  week. 

Multijjlication. — The  simple  processes  of  multiplication 
having  been  taught  in  the  previous  grade,  the  exercises 
given  for  this  grade  should  be  presented  in  steps,  some- 
what as  follows : 

First  Step. — Use  multipliers  similar  to  the  following: 
120,  3-18,  5,630 ;  multiplicands  not  to  contain  more  than 
four  figures. 

Second  Step. — Use  multipliers  similar  to  the  following : 
406,  9,030,  8,007  ;  multiplicands  not  to  contain  more  than 
fi.ve  figures. 

Pupils  should  be  carefully  trained  to  write  the  first 
figure  of  each  'partial  product  under  the  figure  used  as  a 
niulti])lier. 

1^^  Revieuy  each  step  loith  j^^'fJ^ctical  examples  enihraG- 
ing  transactions  that  come  'within  the  ohservation  of  the 
pupils. 


APPENDIX.  203 

Division. — The  idea  of  separating  groups  of  objects  and 
numbers  into  several  equal  parts  having  been  illustrated 
with  objects,  etc.,  as  an  introductory  step  to  division,  the 
teacher  should  now  proceed  to  show  the  different  ways  hy 
which  division  may  he  represented  vnth  figures. 

First  Step. — Place  upon  the  blackboard  the  following 
forms  of  division : 


2)8(  2)8  8-^2= 


Tell  the  pupils  that  each  of  these  forms  of  writing 
numbers  means  that  they  are  to  find  how  many  twos  there 
are  in  eight ;  or,  that  the  number  8  is  to  be  divided  into 
tioo  equal  j'CiJ'ts.  Let  the  pupils  tell  how  many  each  part 
will  contain ;  then  write  the  number  in  connection  with 
each  example,  as  follows : 

2)8(4  2)8_  8-^2=4.  8=4 

8  4  2 


After  repeating  the  four  modes  of  representing  division, 
with  otlier  numbers,  require  the  pupils  to  copy  each  form 
on  the  slate,  and  to  perform  the  division. 

N.  B. — Do  not  allow  the  pupils  to  say  "  divide  two  into 
eight."     Eight  is  divided  hy  two. 

Second  Step. — Proceed  to  illustrate  the  process  of 
division  by  the  lo7ig  division  form,  using  small  numbers 
for  the  divisor.  Use  examples  first  in  which  each  figure 
of  the  dividend  wiU  contain  the  divisor  without  a  re- 
mainder, thus : 


204  APPENDIX. 

2)48(24  3)96(32  4)84(21 

4  9  8 

08  06  04 

8  6  4 

0  0  0 

Third  Step. — Give  examples,  with  the  divisor  of  one 
figure,  in  which  remainders  occur  during  the  partial 
divisions,  thus : 

4)976(244  8)952ril9  T)861(123 

8  8     '  7 

17  15  16 

16  8  14 

16  72  21 

16  72  21 

0  0  0 

Fourth  Step. — Teach  ^^  short  dwulon,^^  first  by  working 
t^^  same  example  hy  both  the  long  and  the  short  forrn^ 
thus  leading  the  children  to  see  that  one  form  is  much 
shorter  than  the  other,  therefore  may  be  called  short 
division^  and  that  the  other,  as  appropriately,  may  be 
called  long  division. 

The  illustrations  for  any  one  of  these  steps  need  not 
occupy  the  time  given  to  division  for  more  than  one  week  / 
and  the  time  devoted  to  the  four  steps  should  not  exceed 
that  assigned  to  this  portion  of  arithmetic  for  one  month. 
When  the  divisor  is  less  than  13,  do  not  allow  the  long 
division  form  to  he  used  after  the  pupils  understand  the 
diference  between  the  two  processes. 


APPENDIX.  205 

Fifth  Step — Give  examples  with  divisors  from  13  to  25, 
to  be  worked  by  long  division,  the  dividends  varying  from 
four  to  six  figures,  including  the  use  of  nawjlds. 

Examples  should  be  given  with  a  naught  in  the  divisor, 
and  also  (at  the  right  hand)  in  the  dividend ;  as,  30)4560 : 
the  pnpils  should  be  required  to  work  such  examples  by 
short  division. 

Aim  first  to  make  the  pupils  imderstand  the  process  of 
the  rule  ;  then  train  them  to  he  accurate  /  and  finally,  drill 
in  rapidity.  Never  attempt  to  gain  rapidity  to  the  neg- 
lect of  accuracy. 

As  soon  as  the  pupils  understand  the  manner  of  doing 
the  work  in  any  rule,  give  practical  examples :  do  not  wait 
for  either  accuracy  or  rapidity  before  giving  such  ques- 
tions. 

1^^  The  ability  ofpujnls  to  work  practical  examples  in 
tliefour  simple  rules^  is  the  real  test  of  their  Jcnoicledye  of 
this  subject. 

Mental  Arithmetic. — The  forms  for  answering  ques- 
tions in  addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplication,  in  this 
grade,  may  be  the  same  as  in  the  Second  Grade.  (Ques- 
tions may  also  be  introduced  which  may  require  both  ad- 
dition and  subtraction  for  their  solution,  as  : 

Henry  had  18  cents;  he  gave  2  cents  for  pencils,  and 
C  cents  for  a  sponge ;  how  many  cents  had  he  left  i 
Ans.  10.  Henry  spent  the  sum  of  2  cents  and  0  cents, 
which  was  8  cents.  He  then  had  left  the  difference  be- 
tween 8  cents  and  18  cents,  which  is  10  cents. 

The  same  example  might  be  performed  by  the  subtrac- 
tion of  2  cents,  and  then  of  G  cents. 

Division. — The  two  following  examples  will  illustrate 
forms  of  solutiuu  ap})rupriate  for  mental  questions  in  di- 
vision : 


206 


APPENDIX. 


How  many  tops  at  3  cents  each  can  be  bought  for  13 
cents  ?  Ans.  4.  As  many  tops  as  3  cents,  the  price  of  1 
top,  is  contained  times  in  12  cents,  which  is  4  times. 

If  2  apples  cost  4  cents,  what  will  1  apple  cost  ?  Ans. 
2  cents.  If  2  apples  cost  4  cents,  1  apple  will  cost  one- 
half  of  4  cents,  which  is  2  cents. 

Oral  Drills  for  rapid  combinations  of  numbers  may 
embrace  combinations  with  multiplication,  addition,  di- 
vision, and  subtraction.  See  also  suggestions  for  oral 
drills  in  the  previous  grades. 

Multiplication  Tahle,  reviewed  as  a  Division  Table. — 
In  making  this  review  the  teacher  may  ask.  How  many 
fours  in  20  ?  How  many  j/jves  in  30  ?  How  many  twelves 
in  48  ?  etc.  The  form  of  the  questions  may  be  changed 
to,  In  40,  how  many  eights  ?  How  many  nities  in  72  ? 
The  teacher  can  easily  change  the  form  of  this  review  so 
as  to  make  it  both  practical  and  interesting. 

Tables  of  Weights  aiul  Measures. — Review  the  tables  of 
the  Second  Grade,  and  teach  the  following : 


Common,  or  Avoirdupois  Weight. 

Miscellaneous  Tables, 

16  ounces  make  1  pound. 

12  things  make  1  dozen. 

8       "           "1  half  pound. 

144      "          "      1  gross. 

4       "           "     1  quarter  of  a  pound. 

12  dozen       "      1      " 

100  pounds     "     1  hundred  weight. 

13  gross       "      1  great  gross. 

20  hundred  weight  make  1  ton. 

20  things     "      1  score. 

2,000  pounds  make  1  ton. 

24  sheets     "      1  quire  of  paper. 

20  quires     "      1  ream. 

"Renews. — After  these  tables  have  been  thoroughly  learned  in  order, 
the  teacher  should  conduct  brief  reviews  of  the  tables  of  both  the  First 
and  Second  Grades,  by  questions  somewhat  like  the  following  : 

How  many  inches  in  three-quarters  of  a  yard  ?  How  many  yards  in 
one  rod  ?  How  many  rods  in  a  mile  ?  How  many  pounds  in  a  half 
ton  ?  How  many  pecks  in  twelve  bushels  ?  How  many  quarts  in  nine 
gallons  ?  How  many  days  in  a  year  ?  How  many  months  in  half  a 
year  ?     Which  is  the  longer,  six  feet  or  two  yards  ?     How  many  buttons 


APPENDIX.  207 

in  a  gross  ?    How  many  sheets  of  paper  in  a  quire  ?    How  many  in  half 
a  quire  ? 

Simple  questions  in  mental  arithmetic  may  be  given, 
with  a  view  to  a  practical  application  of  the  foregoing 
tables. 

WRITING. 

Slats-  Writing. — Continue  instruction  in  the  use  of  capi- 
tals, the  period,  the  interrogation  mark,  and  the  hyphen  ; 
the  pupils  should  be  taught  that  a  syllable  can  never  be 
divided.  Exercises  should  be  had  in  writing  brief  de- 
scriptions of  familiar  objects,  and  the  substance  of  some 
previous  lesson.  The  pupils  of  this  grade  should  be 
trained  in  writing  exercises  from  dictation. 

Penmanship. — In  addition  to  the  exercises  in  the  writ- 
ing-book, occasional  lessons  should  be  given  in  copying 
sentences  from  the  blackboard.  During  the  last  half  of 
this  grade,  exercises  should  be  given  in  writing  from  dic- 
tation. 


UCLA-Young   Researi-h    Libinry 

LB1563.N4   N4 

y 


L  009   572   962   0 


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